Naik - Buddhism and Dalits Social Philosophy and Traditions (2010) PDF

BUDDHISM AND DALITS
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND TRADITIONS

"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
BUDDHISM AND DALITS
Social Philosophy
and Traditions
C.D. Naik
Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and Traditions
© C.D. Naik
ISBN: 978-81-7835-792-8
All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be

reproduced in any manner without written permission.
Published in 2010 in India by

Kalpaz Publications
C-30, Satyawati Nagar,
Delhi-110052
E-mail: ka!paz@hotmail.com
Phone: 9212729499
Lasser Type Setting by: Quick Media, Delhi

Printed at : Young Art Press, Delhi
Contents
Preface 11
. Acknowledgements 15
Introduction 17
List of Contributors 21
1. Rise and Decline of Buddhism: History 2a
The Rise, Fall and Revival of Buddhism-Asoka's
Contribution to the Spread of Buddhism-Mahinda-
Ancient-Decline of Buddhism in India-The Rise and
Decline of Buddhism's Indian Social Base-Mahmud
of Ghanzi-Muhammad of Ghor
2. Globalisation and Dalits 41
Globalisation in India-Position of Dalits-IMF and
World Bank-Structural References-Economic Crisis
World Over-Status-Effects of Globalisation
Philosophy on India-Inflation-Employment-Impact
of Poverty-Impact on Society-Impact on
Educational Institutions-Impact on Reservation-
Impact on Education-Impact on Atrocities on Dalits
and Weaker Sections-Impact of Caste and Culture-
Exceptions to the Trend of Decline-Globalization,
Agricultural Crises and Socio-Economic Justice from
Ambedkarian Paradigm-Ambedkar's Philosophy-
World of Righteousness-Revolution in Antique Vs
Modem Society-Findings-Suggestions-~ferences
3. Social Message of Buddhism 61
Social Message of Buddhism-Democracy, Religion
and Society: Meaning-Asian World Contribution to
Buddhism-Major Schools of Buddhism-History of
Buddhism's Growth-Ambedkar's Role in Buddhism-
Growth of Buddhist Movement-Ambedkarite
Buddhist Society-Ambedkar and His Contribution-
6 Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and Traditions
Theories of Observation, Meaning and
Understanding-Positive and Negative Trinity in
Buddhism-Culture of Buddhism in Contemporary
Society-Contribution of Buddhism to Society-
Breakthrough in Knowledge of Unconscious-Ethics
of Buddhism-World Buddhist Leaders and
Ambedkar-Future Prospects and Role of Buddhism-
Socio-Economic Equality Model of Ambedkar-Vedic
Society-Panchasheel-Eightfold Path of Buddhism-
Conclusion-Recemmendations and Suggestions-
References
4. Sociological Aspects of Buddhism 107
Reviving Cultural Heritage-Poverty and Social
Atrocities Inter-relationship-Dalits Literacy
Scenario-Ambedkar's Gujarat Experience and
Struggle-Pioneers of Buddhist Thinking-Education
as an Unequalizer
5. Buddhist Tantra 115
Philosophy of Buddhist Tantra-Symposium in
Memory of Csoma de Koros-March 2009-
Disappearance of Buddhist Schools-Philosophy of
Tantra-Mantrayana-Meditation-Mandala
Unification-Buddhism in Tibet: History-Prajna and
Shakti-Concept of Absolute-Hinayana and
Mahayana Nirvana-Paramitas-Hermeneuties-
Creator God-Paradoxes-Practices-Goal and Way
Out-Uniqueness ofBuddhism-Contempor~ry Value
of Buddhism-Future-References
6. Buddhist Marriage and Method 147
Laws of Manu-The Buddhist Marriage Rite-The
Principles of Marriage-Introduction of Bride and
Bridegroom-Ills of the Marriage Ritual-The
Buddhist Conversation by Taking the 22 Vows-The
Twenty two Vows-Ceremonial Exercise-Discourse
on the Beatitudes-The Wedding of Viskha-
Interpretations of Ten Admonitions to Visakha-Eight
Boons to Visakha by Buddha-The Discipline for
Girls-The Blessing-The Buddhist Attitude towards
Marriage-Golden Rule : Never let Passion Override
Compassion May all being be well and Happy
Conren~ 7
7. Buddhist Marriage and Succession Act 2007 171
Concept and Evolution of Buddhist Law-Who is a
Buddhist?-How is a Buddhist Separate and Distinct
from a Hindu?-Dr. Ambedkar's Initiation into
Buddhism-The Diksha-Why do Dalits Embrace
Buddhism?-Sources of Buddhist Law-The Noble
Eight-fold Path is-The Five Precept ~Tripitaka-
What is Dhamma?-Distinction between Dharma
(Religion) and Dhamma-Which is a Holy Book of
Dhamma?-Statement of Object and Reasons-Facts
and Details-Validity of Marriage by Converts to
Buddhism in Absence of Saptapadi and Laiiahoma-
Hindu Marriage Act (25 of 1995) S. 7 and Penal Codes.
494-In the Same Judgement in Para 13-Buddhist
Marriage: Need for Codification:-Buddhist Marriage
and Succesion Act, 2007-The Buddhist Succession
Act-2007
8. Deeksha Bhoomi ofAmbedkar 199
Nagpur's History-Need for Political Protection of
Minorities Proposed by Ambedkar-Starte
Committee-Eligibility Criteria-Principle of
Reservation-Buddist Converts as Weaker Section-
The Buddhist Community: Status and Difficulties-
Poverty Level-Unemployment-Summary
Significance of Study-Objective of the Study-Time
and Budget-Nagpur Population Constituents-
Summary-Hindu Castes-Marriage Custom Among
Hindus-Summary-Polygyny-Dowry-Marriage
Enactments-Fertility-Religious Demography from
1951-61 to 1991-2001 and Political Consequences-SC
Population 1991-Buddhist Population-Mahars-SC/
ST Commission's Observation on Status of SCs and
STs-National Removal of Untouchability-Buddhis
Population Growing in India-Media Black out on
Dalit News-Crime against Dalits-Handover to
Buddhist Management the Mahabodhi Mahavihar : A
Request--World conference Against Racism: Indian
Govt Stand-Committee on Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (CERD)-Conspiracy against Buddhist
Political Share as of 2008 for Representing the
Buddhists-Primary Source and Data Analysis for the
Project Report on Status and Problems of Buddhists
Minority in Nagpur-Profile of the Respondents: Age-
wise Distribution of Respondents-Educational Status
of the Respondents-Occupation of the Respondents-
Problems as Stated by the Respondents-Problems-
References
9. Ambedkar's Spirit of Constitution and Social
Organisation 247
Ambedkar as Law Minister-Ambedkar's Appointment
as Law Minister-Presenting the Draft Constitution
before the Constituent Assembly-Resigning from
Nehru's Cabinet-Dr. Ambedkar's Published Works-
His Contribution to the Chapter on Fundamental
Rights-Reservation for Backward Classes in Public
Services and' Educational Institutions-His
Contribution to the Chapter on the Directive
Principles of State Policy-Press Act: Section 4-
Public Safety Laws made by Supreme Court-
Constitution of India Vs Constitution of USa-
Limitations of Fundamental Rights-Interpreting the
US Constitution-Interpreting the Indian
Constitution-Social Organizations-Organizations
Established by Dr. Ambedkar and their Objectives and
Programmes-RPI-BSP-Findings on Application of
Ambedkar's thoughts in Social Organization in
Indore, Ujjain and Dewas Districts-Suggestions/
Recommendations-References
10. Educational Policies and Programmes for
Dalits: Present 2G1
Contribution to the University Reforms Committee-
Contribution to Bill on Education Grants-Minimum
Level of Competency Goal-The Starte Commission-
Importance to 'Shil' : Good Character-Hindu Code
Bill and Women Empowerment-Designing of
Fundamental Rights in Provisions Relating to
Abolition of Untouchability-Propagation of Education
Among Weaker Sections-Education Commission and
Policies-Education Policies and Programmes for
Weaker Sections-Pre-Matric-Post Matric
Scholariships for Weaker Sections-Construction of
Hostels-N ational Overseas Scholarships for SC
Conten ts 9
Stude nts-D rawba cks-R ajiv Gandh i Natio nal

Fellow ship-P resent Scenario in Educa tion Syste m-
Privat izatio n of Educa tion: Impac t on Dalit s-
Refere nces
11. PaH Gram mar 287
Legal Code: Books in Pali Text-P ali Litera ture and
Gram mar-I- tsing's Testim ony on Role of Panini 's
Gram mar in Indian Educa tion-P ost-B uddhi st
Litera ture-A mbed kar's Pali Dicti onary -
Concl usion- Refere nces-- Other Sources
Bibliography
Index
Preface
Buddhism is nothing if it is not social. A man from Kapilavastu

on the border of Nepal saw the interaction of interests among
individuals, associations, kingdoms and general folks with
murderous hunt for enthronement, cut-throat competition between
kins, rule of might over meek from a corner of Uruvela forest and
found the way leading to the end of this misery and professed and
propagated his vision of new and fresh dispensation by words of
mouth while treading the rugged lands from east to west and n:orth
to south on foot for forty five years and breathed his last at the
age of eighty years in Kusinagar. This was Siddhartha Gautama
the Buddha whose legacy is transmitted to the world through
Buddhist countries and missionaries who cared it more than their
own and passed it on to us at present.
Buddhism as philosophy appealed to the rational and as art to
the artists. In the later half of the 19th century the attention of
European scholars was drawn to the study of the Buddha and his
religion. The story of Buddhism in India extended to Far East with
its ramifications into different schools and sects, its literature, its
education, its rulers and writers, during the fifth and seventh
centuries A.D., its art, its revival and its present status in the
world.
The most compassionate feature of Buddhism was its adoption
of Dalits as its own and rendering service to uplift them on par
with generality. Dr. Ambedkar, the 14th Dalai Lama, Yen. Thich
Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksha and alike belonged to this social
stream of Buddhism. They have always espoused the cause of the
most degraded and downtrodden sections of society and set them
free from the thraldom of social slavery, economic exploitation,
educational backwardness and political subjugation.
Out of 14 million Dalits in India none falls above ultra peor or
poverty line poor. As such they suffer from poverty including
deprivation of food, income and employment and, being socially
disadvantaged group Dalits suffer from backwardness in education,
discrimination in employment. atrocities and suppression in social,
cultural and religious matter. Needless to stress that compared to
SCs and STs, let alone OBCs and General Category the Buddhist
group in Maharashtra has greatest incidence of poverty. No radical
change is possible without Dalit participation in the midst of
capitalist privatized corporate market economy neglecting human
labour and its contribution for new products and new order of
humanity.
Ambedkar was not a person, he was an institution. This single
man shook the whole empire of injustice and inequality and brought
on par with every other dignified human being in the civilized world
the century long perished untouchable. That is why Suriyabongse,
Malalasekere, Vijayavardhane, Ledi Sayadaw, V Ba Swe,
Sankrityayan, Csoma de Koros, Ikeda, Soka Gakkai, Yamada
Mumon, Buan-an, Kausalyayan, Sangharakshita, Shosan Suzuki,
Phrakhru Aduu, Buddhadasa and such others stand closer to
Buddha and Babasaheb as well as social philosophy than any other
Father and Prophet as well as philosophy without social context.
Modern education is an effective instrument of occupational
and social mobility in individual's life, but not in social life,
particularly in India. Tantric teachers, living on cremation grounds,
taking outcaste women as their tantric consorts, and using skulls
as drinking vessels, expressed with their behavior their
transcendence of conventional action, and reactions against the
unreasonable aspects of the caste discrimination of Brahmanism
at that time. Social Buddhism in Tantric form made the opposite
ends of sansara and nirvana meet and the incalculable span of time
required for practice of perfection by Bodhisattva reduced to a snap.
The style of our life has changed in the last decades, but the hearts
of men have remained the same. No less strong than the urge for
prosperity, joy and progress, is the longing for a glance beyond into
the realm of the timeless.
For the preservation of society marriage institution was devised
by man from the time immemorial. Which marriage and which
method of marriage can preserve the associated mode of life in a
better way? Over and above the Brahma and Asura marriages
there is a method of civil marriage and Buddhist marriage system
wholly endorses it within its framework. So simple, so time saving,
so economic, so natural and so rational a method Buddhist
marriage really presents a superb model for every social section.
Its golden rule is, "Never let passion override compassion".
Preface 13
Its succession Act 2007 as put forth in this book follows its
preceding Act 1925 and provides any Buddhist to dispose of his or
her property by will or other testamentary disposition in accordance
with its provisions.
For Dalits of modern day India Deeksha Bhoomi has become
a centre of organization, unity and solidarity and no less holy for
the Dalits and Buddhists than Mecca and Madina for the Muslims.
This is the modern Kasi for them as has been Benares for the
Brahmins. This is the stronghold of the Neo-Buddhists as Aligarh
has been for the non-Buddhists. The days are not distant when
the Dalits will create their own university as the Hindus and
Muslims had theirs already. The struggle for management of Bodh
Gaya Buddha Vihara sprang from this centre and became known
to all quarters. The Fourth wheel of Dhamma was turned here at
the hands of Babasaheb Ambedkar and it will not come to an end
come what may.
The ruling deity of Indian national life is from Buddhist fold
the wheel at the centre of tri-colour flag, the lion capital on the
currency, the motto on the wall above the speaker's seat, the dome
on the Raj-Bhavan and Parliament House, the envious number of
Ambedkar Statues, Buddha parks and villages and towns named
after great men of Buddha's mind and so on give the living
impression of the bygone golden era of our nation.
Not only this but even the non-governmental organizations
adopted the principles of Ambedkar and social life such as liberty,
equality and fraternity in their respective modus operandi and
functioning across the country with slogan of educate or each one
teach one, agitate or change for better and organize or generate
better mode of social life. This will perhaps be the torchlight for
coming generation to see through dimness of past glory and
dazzling of present momentary name and fame.
It is our responsibility to take Dr. Ambedka,r's thoughts to
every common man of this country, then only ,our nation will be
strong enough to face the challenges of 2pt century and will
become a developed nation.
Finally I am inclined to remind the readers that one who
knows Pali needs no light from outside.
C.D. Naik
Acknowledgements
Let me express my deepest gratitude for greatest services

rendered by Bodhishree, Nirvan, Preeti in preparation of this
manuscript. I owe a word of gratitude to Shri L.R. Bailey, Editor
of Bheem Patrika, Jullundur for giving me and my Institute a visit
as chief guest in the national seminar and delivering his lectures
on the theme that enlightened our minds. I cannot forget dear
Prof. Andrea for inviting me at International conference in Kolkata
and Shantiniketan on Tantra and Buddhist hermeneutics, which
has inspired me to write a paper on this theme as included in this
book. The organizer of national seminar in the department of social
work in Sayaji University, Baroda also deserved my heartfelt
thanks for organizing my keynote speech and giving good response.
During the process of preparing this manuscript I was benefitted
by the company of Chairman, vice-chancellor, professors, research
scholars and friends whose names are too famous to be mentioned
here. Lastly but not in the least I give my hearty thanks to Kalpaz
Publications and its team of editors for bringing this manuscript
to refinement and publication.
C.D. Naik
Introd uction
Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions is the

latest issue of the author. It has eleven chapters based on research
papers, projects and articles prepared by the author earlier. The
chapter (I) on Rise and Decline of Buddhism: History gives
historical outline of how Buddha introduced the revolutionary
system of society and how his descendents continued that spark
of life through vicissitudes of reactionary forces and rising and
falling tides of time. Chapter (Il) on Globalisation and Dalits tells
the story of the effect of privatization and marketisation of goods
and services on the state role and Dalits' fate falling more and more
apart from each other as helpless victims of corporate power and
its empire across the globe. It is a research paper of the author
focusing on the wild spread economic speculation at the cost of
public work, welfare and will. Chapter (Ill) on Social Message of
Buddhism highlighted the Buddha's Dhamma meant not only for
individual perfection alone but also for sublime service to mankind
as a whole. It traced contributions of Dr. Ambedkar and the
significance of Buddhism t, 'r the Asian world to lead the humanity
in the footprints of the Bodhisattvas and uproot the socio-economic-
political-religious-ethnic-religious suffering by selfless service to the
world community through Buddhist spirit.
Chapter (IV) on Sociological Aspects of Buddhism reflected
relevance of Dr. Ambedkar's thought to the contemporary social
principles and practical realities of working in and for society. This
paper was presented in National Seminar ofthe Sayaji University
Department of Social Work, Vadodara as key note and was
appreciated very much by the audience as it set the real note of
modern social needs and remedies.
Chapter (V) on Buddhist Tantra is a research paper presented
at International symposium in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in last
March 2009. It analysed the Buddhist tantrism as social Buddhism,
which is both ~asy and broad for the lay society to aspire and elevate
for Buddhahood with concern and compassion for transformation
of world into a Buddhafield for the establishment of living nirvana
on the face of this planet.
Chapter (VI) on Buddhist Marriage and Method "is perhaps a
new and ideal feedback for a Buddhist society in India and abroad
for its material is culled from scriptures and canonical principles
and it gave a critique to the tradition both in letter and spirit of
life. A sequel to this is chapter (VII) contributed by the Government
of Maharashtra's Hon'ble State Minister, Shri Nitin Raut's on
Buddhist Marriage and Succession Act 2007, which is based on the
notes of the Hindu Code Bill of Dr. Ambedkar, who had tried his
best to lead it through the Parliament with the favour ofthe then
Prime Minister Shri Jawahar Lal Nehru so that the parity and
equality of men and women in matters of marriage, right to
inheritance, succession, adoption, divorce and such other related
things should be established in Indian society, but, alas! neither
the Prime Minister nor the Hindu intellectuals of the time including
the Hindu progressive ladies supported the bill, nor showed an iota
of concern for the fair sex that resulted in the resignation of Law
Minister Dr. Ambedkar from the Cabinet in 1951.
Chapter (VIII) on Deeksha Bhoomi of Ambedkar is based on the
research project of Buddhist minority in Nagpur, conducted by this
author himself in 2006. It highlighted how the Buddhist and
scheduled caste population lumped together for census purposes
and were deprived of their size-wise share of representation in Lok
Sabha and State Legislature seats due as per'their combined
population figure, with Government turning the deaf ear to their
grievances.
Chapter (IX) on Ambedkar's Spirit of Constitution and Social
Organisation reflected how Fundamental rights of a citizen and
directive principles of state are obligatory and how spirit of
constitutional framers was lost in the verdict of Supreme Court
and high courts. It offers synoptic view of Dr. Ambedkar's brilliant
and lucid definitions of intricate knotty issues of Indian national
and social life.
It has also supplemented with the functioning of the social
organizations today in the context of application of Ambedkar's
thought to them in the districts of Madhya Pradesh.
Chapter (IX) on Educational Policies and Programmes for
Dalits: Present gives an exposition of Government policies for
higher education and scholarship with appreciation and criticism
Introduction 19
offered by its author Prof. Katkar, Chandrapur, who had presented
it in the National Seminar on Dr. Ambedkar's Social Philosophy:
Educational and Economic Development of Weaker Sections held
in the Institute, Mhow on 27-28 February, 20",9.
Lastly the Chapter (Xl) on Pali Grammar ib 'O(li1tribution of
Dr. Ambedkar to Pali Vyakaran in making this a ... sb, '~ subject
simplified and accessible to the non-Pali background seekers of
knowledge of Buddha's dialogues recited in Pali in day-to-day lay
Buddhist routine incorporated in his Bauddha Puja Path and
Dictionary in Marathi, Gujrathi, English and Pali of Volume sixteen
published under the Writings and Speeches of Babasaheb Dr.
Ambedkar by Education Department, Government of Maharashtra,
Mumbai.
Thus this book is useful for common educated circle and
intellectual academic classes including students of Indian politics,
social science, history, ethics, religion, law and literature.
If any errors are found in elucidating the matter in this volume
the author will humbly submit to it and rectify it at the earliest
next opportunity. Any benefit derived from the reading of this book
by the user will be taken as a gain to the author himself.
C.D. Naik
List of Contributors
Dr. Nitin Raut was awarded the degree of Ph. D. from Nagpur
University in the year 2008 on his thesis related to family planning
in the context of Dr. Ambedkar's view on it. Prof. C.D. Naik as
external examined of his thesis approved his work and
recommended Doctorate award for the same. Shri Nitin Raut has
been the member of Legislative Assembly (North Nagpur)
continuously and is now holding the portfolio of Minister in the State
of Maharashtra.
Prof SatyapaZ Katkar is M.Sc. (Psychology), M.A. (Dr.
Ambedkar Thought), M. Ed.; P.G.D.P.R.; D. Hindi and in teaching
profession at Gadiward, Rajura, Dist. Chandrapur (M.S.).
Dr. C.D. Naik is Professor and Head of the Division of Dr.
Ambedkar Thought and Philosophy and Dr. Ambedkar Chair
(Additional Charge) at Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar National Institute
of Social Sciences, Dr. Ambedkar N agar, A.B. Road, Dongargaon,
(Madhya Pradesh)-453 441 (India).
1
Rise and Decline of Buddhism : History
C.D. Naik
Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by

followers of one religious group against followers and
institutions of another religious group, often in the form of
rioting. Hinduism, the largest religion in India, accounts for
80 per cent of the population; Islam, the second largest religion,
accounts for 13 per cent of the population; Buddhism, Jainism,
and Sikhism taken together account for 3 per cent of the
population; and Christians accounts for 2 per cent of the
population. Other religions such as Zoroastrianism and
Judaism, although not popular, have a centuries long history
in India. Religious fundamentalism is considered a major driver;
with Hindu nationalism, Sikh separatism, Christian
Evangelism, and Islamic Fundamentalism acting as catalysts
or as primary forces for outbreaks of violence. Despite India's
secular and religiously tolerant nature, broad religious
representation in various aspects of society including the
government, the active role played by autonomous bodies such
as National Human Rights Commission ofIndia and National
Commission for Minorities, and the ground-level work being
carried out by non- governmental organizations, sporadic and
sometimes serious acts of religious violence tend to occur as the
root causes of religious violence often run deep in history,
religious activities, and politics of India.
Along with domestic organizations, International human
rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human
Rights Watch publish reports bringing embarrassing attention
to acts of religious violence in India. Foreign government
organization such as United States Department of State have
also published similar, but controversial, reports which have
largely been dismissed in India as interference in internal
affairs.
The Rise, Fall and Revival of Buddhism

According to ProfP.V. Bapat, Buddhism is a religion of kindness,
humanity and equality. The Sramanas who lived a life of
retirement in the forests and gave themselves up to
philosophical speculation did not sympathize with sacrifices
involving the slaughter of animals. Indeed, the Brahmans had
subsequently to modify their position and substitute for live
animals images made of corn-flour (pista-pasu). Buddhism
denounced all claims to superiority on the ground of birth as
the Brahmanas claimed. It threw open the doors of organized
religious life to women and men alike. The institution of a band
of disciplined, selfless workers was at the very foundation of
the Buddhist organization, to which he instructed "Let not two
of you go in one and the same direction-Ma ekena due
agamittha".
Popularity of the Buddha and his religion largely depended
upon his method of approach to the masses. The Buddha had
asked his disciples to preach his doctrine in the people's own
speech (sakaya niruttiya). Though Gautama Buddha belonged
to an aristocratic family, his life and work were those of a
democrat. When it came to voting, marked sticks (salakas) were
used and a responsible officer was appointed to keep watch over
the voting. During his lifetime, the Buddha allowed things to
be decided democratically by the Sangha; and after his death,
too, he did not want to restrict the freedom of the Sangha by
appointing his own successor. He wanted the Dhamma and
Vinaya to be its guides after his death and anything which was
not authorized by the Dhamma and Vinaya was to be rejected
by the Sangha. The Sangha drew its inspiration from small
oligarchies (ganarajya) like those of the Vajjis or Licchavis of
Vaisali and of the Mallas of Pava or Kusinara. 16 At one time
the Sakyas also enjoyed a similar form of government, but they
seem to have lost it long before. The Buddha showed great
admiration for the Vajjis or Licchavis when, in the
Mahaparinibbana-sutta, he likened the Licchavis to the thirty-
three gods (Tavatimsa). He also warned Ajattasastru's Minister.
Vassakara, saying that the Vajjis would remain invincible as
long as they adhered to the seven rules governing their conduct
(satta apparihania dhamma), namely, (0 daily meetings for
consultation; (ii) unity in action; (iii) adherence to old
Rise and Decline of Buddhism: History 25
injunctions; (iv) respect for elders; (v) respect for women who
were not to be molested; (vi) reverence for places of worship
within or without their territory; and (vii) protection to worthy
saints (Arhats) in their territory.
Gita reflects liberal attitude of Buddhists and endorses it
by repeating the stanza; striya vaisyas tatha sudras te pi yanti
param gatim. 17 Thus many aspects of the Buddhist religion
came to be accepted by others gradually no distinction
remained. The Mahayana form of Buddhism, perhaps under
the influence of non-Aryan or aboriginal popular cults in the
lower strata of society, came to assume a darker and debased
form of Tantrism, which was studied at the Buddhist
Universities of Nalandas and Vikramasila until the end of the
12th century AD. The beginning of the 13th century brought
evil days. The monasteries of Bihar were despoiled and many
of the monks fled to Nepal and Tibet, the lay Buddhists
absorbed in the non-Buddhist community except a few isolated
groups in Orissa, Bengal, Assam and South India, where an
inscription recently discovered in Korea tells an Indian monk
Dhyanabhadra visited Kancipura, where he listened to a
discourse on an Avatansaka-sutra in 14th century AD.1S
In the latter half of the 19th century the attention of
European scholars was drawn to the study of the Buddha and
his religion. The story of Buddhism in India extended to Far
East with its ramifications. Into different schools and sects, its
literature, its education, its rulers and writers, during the fifth
and seventh centuries AD., its art, its revival and its present
status in the world.
Asoka's Contribution to the Spread of Buddhism
Asoka's thirteenth rock edict stated that he tried to spread
the Dhamma not only in his territory or among the people of
the border lands but also in kingdoms far off, such as those of
Antiochus (Antiyoko) 11, King of Syria, and the kingdoms of
four Antigonos (Antakini) of Macedonia, Alexander
(Alikasundara) of Epirus, an ancient district of northern Greece,
and Magas of Cyrenia, in North Africa Yavanas, Kambojas,
Pandyas, Colas, Andhras, Pulindas, Ceylon etc. and paved the
way for the Buddhist missionaries helped by kings like Kaniska
to take Buddhism to Central Asia, China, Japan and Tibet in

the North, and to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and other
countries in the South.
During the first and second centuries after the Nirvana,
Buddhism could hardly be distinguished from other ascetic
movements. It was evidently in the Maurya period that
Buddhism emerged as a distinct religion with great potentialities
for expansion.
Mahinda:
When the great missionary Mahinda went to Ceylon in B.C.
307, he carried with him, not only the Tripitaka but the
Arthakatha which had grown up around the Tripitaka during
two and a half centuries that had passed since Buddha's death.
Mahinda tried to translate these commentaries from Pali into
Sinhalese, the latter of which continued to exist in Ceylon for
many centuries while the Pali version disappeared.
According to the traditions handed down among the
Sinhalese, Pali, that is, the language used in the texts, could
also be called Magadhi, not the Magadhi of the Prakrit
grammarians, for latter wrote some centuries afterwards, but
the one, the term of which was used in sixth century A.D. and
referred to the language used by Asoka and his son Mahinda.
The texts brought to Ceylon by Mahinda and his companions
were not in writing, but in the memory of them. From the 11th
century onwards it became a sort of fashion to write manuals
in verse, or in prose and verse and the first book written in Pali
in Ceylon was a chain of Pali verses.
Though Sinhalese pandits were writing in Pali, to them, of
course, a dead language, they probably did their thinking in
their own mother tongue. Now they had then, for many
generations, so close and intimate an intercourse with their
Dravidian neighbours that Dravidian habits of speech had
crept into Sinhalese and its influence can be traced in the idioms
and in the order of the arrangement of the matter of these
Ceylon Pali books of the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. In the
fifth century Mahinda's Sinhalese commentaries were
retranslated by the famous Buddhaghosa.
Ancient India
Ancient India has no history oflarge scale religious violence
where opponents were put to the sword. However, King
Pusyamitra of Sunga Empire is linked in legend with the
persecution of Buddhist. There is some doubt as to whether he
did or did not persecute Buddhists actively.
The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas and
viharas built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100 dinaras
upon the heads of Buddhist monks (bhiksus) and describes him
as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka. This account
has however been described as "exaggerated". Archaeological
evidence is scarce and uncertain. However to many scholars.
Sunga kings were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as
having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.
With the possible exception of reign of Kinb Pusyamitra,
Buddhism and Hinduism seem to have co-existeu percefully
with almost all Buddhist temples, including the once at Ajanta
Caves being built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings.
Decline of Buddhims in India
The decline of Buddhism in India, the land of its birth,
occurred for a variety of reasons, and happened even as it
continued to flourish beyond the frontiers of India. Buddhism
was established in the area of ancient Magadha and Kosala
by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, in what is now
modern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Buddhism, over the next
1500 years become the region's dominant belief system,
spreading across the Indian sub-continent (see history of
Buddhism).
After the death of Gautama Buddha, Buddhism saw rapid
expansion in its first century, especially in northern and central
India. The Mauryan Emperor Ashoka (304-232 BCE) and later
monarchs encouraged the expansion of Buddhism into Asia
through religious ambassadors.
Chinese scholars traveling through the region the between
5th and 8th centuries CE, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, I-ching,
Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the
Buddhist sangha, especially in the wake of the White
Hun invasion. A continuing decline occurred after the fall of

the Pala dynasty in the 12th century CE, continuing with the
later destruction of monasteries by Muslim conquerors.
Buddhism was virtually extinct by the end of the 19th century.
In recent times, Buddhism has seen a revival in India from the
influence of Anagarika Dharmapala, Kripasaran Mahasthavir,
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.
The Rise and Decline of Buddhism's Indian Social Base
The Buddha's periCld saw not only urbanization, but also
the beginnings of centralized states. While the Brahmin Law-
givers of this time were explicitly hostile to towns, there is
evidence that the Buddha's message appealed especially to town-
dwellers and the new social classes. Buddhism became
successful by filling the moral vacuum in the new social world
of commerce and city life with a universalistic social morality
which was lacking in both the Brahmanical and shramana
religions. In turn, the successful expansion of the Buddhist
movement, with its surge of monasteries and monuments,
depended on the growing economy of the time, together with
increased centralized political organization capable of extracting
and channeling surplus. Regardless of the religious beliefs of
their kings, states usually patronized all the important sects
relatively even-handedly. This consisted of building monasteries
and religious monuments, donating property such as the income
of villages for the support of monks, and protecting previously
donated property by leaving them exempt from taxation.
Donations were most often made by private persons such as
wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but
this was correlated periods in which the state also gave its
support and protection. In the case of Buddhism, this support
was particularly important because of its high level of
institutional organization and the dependence of monks on
donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the
form of massive propertied foundations. Buddhism flourished
in the strongest states, and was welcomed by rulers in India
and later throughout Asia who were centralizing power in areas
previously organized on the basis of clans. Although the
Buddhist monks deliberately kept themselves uninvolved in
Rise and Decline of Buddhism : History 29
affairs of state, they were useful for rulers as they promoted

peaceful societies with their moral preaching and provided
institutions for literate education. During the Maurya Empire,
in which period Ashoka banned Vedic sacrifices as contrary to
Buddhist benevolence, Buddhism began its spread outside of
its Magadha homeland. The successor Shungas reinstated the
sacrifices and persecuted Buddhism, but without much
success. The overall trend of Buddhism's spread across Iadia and
state support by various regional regimes continued. The
consolidation of monastic organization made Buddhism the
center of religious and intellectual life in India. The Gupta
Empire period was a time of great development of Hindu
culture, but even then in the Ganges Plain half of the
population supported Buddhism, and the five precepts were
widely observed. The Hindu rulers and wealthy laity gave
lavish material support to Buddhist monasteries. Mter the
Guptas, the Shaivite kings of Gujarat also patronized Buddhist
monasteries, building a great Center of Buddhist at learning
Valabhi. The Buddhist emperor Harsha and the later Buddhist
Pala dynasty were great patrons of Buddhism, but Buddhism
has already begun to loss its political and social base.
The gradual expansion in the scope and authority of caste
regulations shifted political and economic power to the local
arena, reversing the trend of centralization. The caste system
gradually expanded into secular life as a regulative code of
social and economic transactions. In ancient times, the four
varnas were primarily a categorization scheme; the Vedas
contained no prohibitions regarding intermarriage. There were,
however, large numbers of jatis, probably originally tribal
lineage groups. Brahman legists organized these groups into
c~stes. The law books of Manu and Yajnavalkya, which were
attributed to legendary figures, reached their canonical forms
around 200 CE. These layout caste duties, prohibitons, and
penalties for violating their regulations.
Brahmans developed a new relationship with state. It
became the duty of political officials to enforce the caste
regulations written by Brahmans. Caste regulations grew over
a long period of time. As they did, states gradually lost control
of landed revenue. A key transition was the downfall of the
Guptas. Indian social structure developed in a manner opposite

to that of China or Rome, where administration of law was
dominated by government officials. Instead, Brahmans became
hereditary monopolists of the law in a series of weak, ephemeral
states. Brahmans came to regulate more and more aspects of
public life, and collected fees for the performance of their rituals.
Eventually, caste laws controlled everything from guilds and
interest rates to criminal penalties. Caste law, administered by
Brahmans, was built up to cuntrol all local economic production
and much of its distribution. The transformation of Brahman
priests to linchpins of the caste system transformed the
functioning property system. The political ascendancy of
Hinduism and its displacement of Buddhism's political and social
base came by this indirect route. The Sungas: Following the
Mauryans, Pusymitra Sunga is linked in legend with the
persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of Hinduism that
forced Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.
There is some doubt as to whether he did or did not persecute
Buddhists actively.
A Buddhist tradition holds him as having taken steps to
check the spread of Buddhism as "the number one enemy of
the sons of the Sakyas and a most cruel persecutor of the
religion." The Divyavadana ascribes to him the razing of stupas
and viharas built by Ashoka, the placing of a bounty of 100
dinaras upon the heads of Buddhist monks (bhiksus) and
describes him as one who wanted to undo the work of Ashoka.
This account has however been described as "exaggerated".
Historian Romila Thapar writes that the Asokavadana legend
is, in all probability, a "Buddhist version of Pusyamitra's attack
of the Mauryas", and reflects the fact that, with the declining
influence of Buddhism in the Imperial court, Buddhist
monuments and institutions would receive less attention.
The accuracy ofthe Buddhist texts that record Pusyamitra's
persecution of Buddhists has been debated by historians. The
first accounts appear two centuries after Pushyamitra's reign
in Asokavadana and the Divayavadana. Sir John Marshall
states that it is possible that the original brick stupa built by
Ashoka was destroyed by Pusyamitra and then restored by his
successor Agnimitra. Archaeological evidence is scarce and

uncertain. Following Ashoka's sponsorship of Buddhism, it is
possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under
the Sungas but no evidence of active persecution has been
noted.
The Sungas were patrons of Hinduism and their lack of
royal patronage was also a setback to Buddhism, resulting in
the splintering of Buddhism into many forces. Some of them
were: The Saravastivadins, Mahasargikas, Sthaviravadha, and
Yogacara. This resulted in a diversity of opinions and
interpretations that led to a conflict between warring schools
shortly after the fall of the Mauryans.
Traditional Hinduism is said by some writers to have
competed in political and spiritual realm with Buddhism in the
Gangetic plains while Buddhism flourished in the realms of the
Bactrian kings.
Contribution to Buddhism: However to many scholars,
Sunga king were seen as more amenable to Buddhism and as
having contributed to the building of the stupa at Bharhut.
An inscription at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple
records the construction of the temple as follows: "The gift of
Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra." So then this further
means that the Sungas were in support of Buddhism. Another
inscription reads: "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons
and the wife of King Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also
of Srima of the royal palace shrine."
Guptas : Buddhism saw a brief revival under the Guptas.
By the 4th to 5th century Buddhism was already in decline in
northern India, even as it was achieving multiple successes in
Central Asia and along the Silk Road as far as China. It
continued to prosper in Gandhara under the Shahi kingdom.
White Huns: Central Asian and North Western Indian
Buddhism weakened in the 6th century following the White
Hun invasion, who followed their own religions such as Tengri,
Nestorian Christianity, and Manichean. Their Saivite King,
Mihirakula (who ruled from 515 CE), suppressed Buddhism as
well. He did this by destroying monasteries as far away as
modern-day Allahabad, before his son reversed the policy.
Harsha: In the north and west collapse of Harshavardana's

kingdom gave rise to many smaller kingdoms. This led to the
rise of the martial Rajputs clans across the Gangetic plains. It
also marked the end of Buddhist ruling chans, along with a
sharp decline in royal patronage. This carried on until a revival
under the Pala Empire in the Bengal region.
Buddhism in Southern India: In the south of India
while there was no over persecution of Buddhists at least two
Pallava rulers Simhavarma and Trilochana are known to have
destroyed Buddhist stupas and have had Hindu temples built
over them. However, Bodhidharma, a patriarch of Zen
Buddhism was a Brahmin prince from the Pallava dynasty.
Nagarjuna, the founder of Mahayana Buddhism, was a
Brahmin from southern India, the Satavahanas' were
worshipers of Buddha as well as other Hindu gods such as
Krishna, Shiva, Gauri, Indra, the sun and moon. Under their
reign at Amaravati, the historian Durga Prasad notices that
Buddha had been worshiped as a form ofVishnu. Furthermore,
a vigorous Hindu revival ofVaishnavite Hinduism in the region
led to a sharp decline of Buddhism.
Muhammad bin Qasim: In AD 711, Muhammad bin
Qasim conquered the Sindh bringing Indian societies into
contact with Islam. Nicholas Gier believes that he succeeded
partly because Dahir was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled
over a Buddhist majority. Gier also believes that Chach of Alor
and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist
Rai Dynasty. However, Chacha's brother was a Buddhist ascetic
and he succeeded the kingdom from 671-679. It is believed by
some scholars that Chacha himself may have been a Buddhist.
Further, after Dahir took control, he allowed for a Buddhist
monk to run the city of Virun in his kingdom. However, in the
war with Qasim, the monk surrendered to Qasim. The forces
of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with
the Jats and other Buddhist governors. His campaign's success
is ascribed to the support of Buddhist and the people of lower
castes like Jats, Meds and Bhutto tribes.
The Chach Nama records a couple of instances of conversion

of stupas to mosques such as at N erun as well as the
incorporation of the religious elite into the ruling administration
such as the allocation of 3 per cent of the government revenue
was allocated to' the Brahmins. As a whole, the non-Muslim
populations of conquered territories were treated as People of
the Book and granted Hindu and Buddhist religions the freedom
to practice their faith in return for payment of the poll tax
(Jizya). They were then excused from military service or
payment of the tax paid by Muslim subjects-Zakat. The jizya
enforced was a graded tax, being heaviest on the elite and
lightest on the poor.
One revealed inscription reads, 'The nephew of Dahir, his
warriors, and the principal officers have been dispatched, and
the infidels converted to Islam or destroyed. Instead of Idol
temples, mosques and other places of worship have been built,
pulpits have been erected, the Khutba is read, the call to
prayers is raised, so that devotions are performed at the stated
hours.'
While proselytization occurred, the social dynamics of Sind
were no different from other Muslim regions such as Egypt,
where conversion to Islam was slow and took centuries, and
generally came from among the ranks of Buddhists.
Mahmud of Ghazni
By the 10th century Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the
Hindu-Shahis, effectively removing Hindu influence and
ending Buddhist self-governance across Central Asia, as well
as the Punjab region. He demolished both stupas and temples
during his numerous campaigns across North-Western India,
but left those within his domains and Afghanistan alone, even
as al-Biruni recorded Buddha as the prophet "Burxan".
Mahmud of Ghazni is said to have been iconoclast. Hindu
and Buddhist statues, shrines and temples were looted and
destroyed, and many Buddhists had to take refuge in Tibet.
Palas: In the East under the Palas in Bengal, Mahayana
Buddhism flourished and spread to Bhutan and Sikkim. The
Palas created many temples and a distinctive school of Buddhist
art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas between

the 8th and the 12th century, before it collapsed at the hands
of the attacking Sena dynasty.
However, some scholars believe that they were also
Shaivaite judging by the image of Shiva and His ox on their
coins and the etymology of their names. Art of Shiva also exists
in temples such as the Melakadambur in Bengal where
N ataraja and his bull are found.
They had also dedicated to Vishnu. Figures ofVishnu were
substantial in number in the Pal a Era.
Other than figures of Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva were also
of Sarasvati.
Muhammad of Ghor
Muhammad attacked the North-Western regions of the
Indian subcontinent many times. Gujarat later fell to
Muhammad of Ghor's armies in 1197. Mahammad of Ghor's
armies destroyed many Buddhist structures, including the great
Buddhist university of N alanda.
In 1200 Muhammad KhiIji, one of Qutb-ud-Din's generals
destroyed monasteries fortified by the Sena armies, such as the
one at Vikramshila. Many monuments of ancient Indian
civilization were destroyed by the invading armies, including
Budfhist sanctuaries near Benares. Buddhist monks who
escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet and south India.
The Mongols: In 1215, Genghis Khan conquered
Mghanistan and devastated the Muslim world. In 1227, after
his death, his conquest was divided. Chagatai then established
the Chagatai Khanate, where his son Arghun made Buddhism
the state religion. At the same time, he came down harshly on
Islam and demolished mosques to build many stupas. He was
succ.eeded by his brother, and then his son Ghazan who
converted to Islam and in 1295 changed the state religion. After
his reign, and the splitting of the Chagatai Khanate, little
mention of Buddhism or the stupas built by the Mongols can
be found in Mghanistan and Central Asia.
Timur (Tamarlane): Timur was 14th century warlord of
Turco-Mongol descent, conqueror of much of western and
central Asia, and founder of the Timurid Empire. Timur
destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which

Buddhism had flourished.
Mughals: Mughal rule contributed to the decline of
Buddhism. They are reported to have destroyed many Hindu
temples and Buddhist shrines alike or converted many sacred
Hindu places into Muslim shrines and mosques. Mughal rulers
like Aurangzeb not only destroyed Buddhist temples and
monasteries but also destroyed Hindu temples and replaced
them with Islamic mosques.
Ideological and financial causes: The period between
the 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the
expense of Buddhism. Some Hindu rulers resorted to military
means in an effort to suppress Buddhism. However, it is seen
that the evolution of Hindu ideology influenced by Buddhism
was more important factor for the growth of Hinduism.
Hinduism became a more "intelligible and satisfying road
to faith for many ordinary worshippers" than it had been
because it now included not only an appeal to a personal god,
but also seen the development of an emotional facet with the
composition of devotional hymns.
Xuanzang's Report: Much of what we know about the
state of Buddhism the second half of the first millennium CE
comes from the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, whQ
traveled widely and documented his journey. Although he found
many regions where Buddhism was still flourishing, he also
found many where it had sharply and startlingly declined,
giving way to Jainism and a Brahmanical order. Xuanzang
compliments the patronage ofHarshavardana. He reported that
Buddhism was popular in Kanyakubja (modern day Uttar
Pradesh), where he noted "an equal number of Buddhists and
heretics" and the presence of 100 monasteries and 10,000
bhikshus along with 200 "Deva" (Hindu) temples. He found a
similarly flourishing population in Udra (modern Orissa). He
found a mixed population in Kosala, homeland of N agarjuna,
and in Andhra, and Dravida which today roughly correspond
to the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu. In a region he calls Konkanapura, which may be
Kolhapur in southern Maharashtra, he found great numbers
of Buddhists coexisting with a similar number of non-Buddhists,

and a similar situation in northern Maharashtra. In Sindh he
finds a large Theravada population. He reports a fair number
of Buddhists in what is now Pakistan.
In Dhanyakataka (today's Vijayawada), he found a striking
decline, with Jainism and Shaivism ascendant. In Bihar, site
()f a number of important landmarks, he also found a striking
decline and relatively few followers, with Hinduism and
Jainism predominating. He also found relatively few Buddhists
in Bengal, Kamarupa (modern Assam). He reported no
Buddhist presence in Konyodha, few in Chulya (in the Tamil
region), and few in Gujarat and Rajasthan, except in Valabhi,
where he found a large Theravada population.
During the reign of the Chalukya dynasty, Xuanzang
reported that numerous Buddhist stupas in regions previously
ruled by Buddhist-sympathetic Andhras and Pallavas were
"ruined" and "deserted". These regions came under the control
of the Vaishnavite Eastern Chalukyas, who were not favourable
to Buddhism and did not support the religion. Xuanzang's report
also mentions that, in the 7th Century, Shashanka of the
Kingdom of Gouda (Bengal), was expanding his influence in
the region in the aftermath of the fall of the Gupta Empire.
He is blamed by Xuanzhang and other Buddhist sources for
the murder of Rajyavardhana, a Buddhist king of Thanesar,
Xuanzang writes that Shashanka destroyed the Bodhi tree of
enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and replaced Buddha statues with
Shiva Lingams. However, it has been claimed that Xuanzhang
had a Buddhist bias in favour of the Buddhist rulers such as
Harshavardhana and that his account may therefore be
slanted.
Philosophical convergence: Literary evidences point
towards an absorption of Buddhist elements by Hindu culture
over a period of centuries. Anti-Buddhist propaganda was also
reaching its peak during the 8th century when Shankara
modeled his monastic order after the Buddhist Sangha. An
upsurge of Hinduism had taken place in North India by the
early eleventh century as illustrated by the influential Sanskrit
drama Prabodhacandrodaya in the Chandela court; a devotion
to Vishnu and an allegory to the defeat of Buddhism and

Jainism. The population of North India had become
predominantly Shaiva, Vaishnava or Shakta. But in the 12th
century a lay population of Buddhist hardly existed outside the
monastic institutions and when it did penetrate the Indian
peasant population it was hardly discernible as a distinct
community. Buddhist monasteries were well-funded and life
within was relatively easy. To avoid unwanted members, many
monasteries became selective about whom they admitted, in
some cases based on social class.
Islam: The 'lUrkish invaders described Indian Pagans as
but-parast (idol worshippers), and idol-breakers as but-shikan.
The word ''but" is derived from Buddhism, but the 'lUrks used
if for "Indian paganism" in general. When the Arabs arrived
in Sind there were only glimpses of Buddhism nor any evidence
of a provincial government in control of the Buddhists. During
the seventh to thirteenth centuries when Islam arrived it
replaced Buddhism as the great cosmopolitan trading religion
in many places accompanied by a consolidation of the
communal peasant religions of Hinduism. The Tibetan scholar
of the seventeenth century Taranatha writes that during the
time of the Sena king Stag-gzigs ('lUrks).has begun to appear
on horses and that monasteries had been fortified with troops
stationed in them; however, they were overrun and monks at
U ddandapura were massacred, the monastery razed and
replaced by a new fort and further north-east Vikramshila was
destroyed as well. Hardly a contemporary evidence however
exists on the destruction of Buddhist monasteries. Brief Muslim
account and the one eye witness account of Dharrnasmavim in
wake of the conquest during the 1230s talks about abandoned
viharas being used as camps by the Turukshahs. Later
historical traditions such as Taranathas are mixed with
legendary materials and summarized as "the Turukshah
conquered the whole of Magadha and destroyed many
monasteries and did much damage at Nalanda, such that many
monks fled abroad" thereby bringing about a sudden demise
of Buddhism with their destruction of the Viharas. Buddhism
lingered longer in Iran than South Asia and was officially
professed under fifty years of Mongol conquest. With the
conversion of Ghazan to Islam in 1295, the backlash resulted

in the destruction of many Buddhist places of worship and the
further migration of monks into Kashmir.
Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example,
Udantpur's monasteries were destroyed in 1197 by Mohammed-
bin-Bakhtiyar and the town was renamed. Taranatha in his
history of Buddhism in India (dpal dus kyi 'khor lo'i chos bskor
gyi byung khungs nyer mkho) of 1608 C.E. gives an account
of the last few centuries of Buddhism, mainly in Eastern India.
His account suggests a considerable decline but not an
extinction of Buddhism in India in his time.
Sufi and Bhakti movement : When Islam arrived in
India, it sought conversion from, not assimilation to or
integration with, the already present religions. Under Sufi
influence, the pressures of caste, and with no political support
structure left in place to resist social mores, many converted to
Islam in the Bengal region.
After the Mongol invasion of Islamic lands across Central
Asia, many Sufis also found themselves fleeing towards India
and around the environs of Bengal. In Bengal, their influence,
caste attitudes towards Buddhists, previous familiarity with
converting Buddhist, a lack of Buddhist political power,
Hinduism's resurgence through movements such as the Advaita
and the bhakti movement, all contributed to a significant
realignment of beliefs that relegated Buddhism in India to the
peripheries.
Survival of Buddhism in India: At the beginning of the
modern era, Buddhism was very nearly extinct in mainstream
Indian society. Some tribal people living in the territory of
modern India did continue to practice Buddhism.
In Bengal, the Bauls still practice a syncretic form of
Hinduism that was strongly influenced by Buddhism. There is
also evidence of small communities of Indian Theravada
Buddhists existing continuously in Bengal in the area of
Chittagong hill tracts among the indigenous Chakma people up
to the present. Though they are under increasing pressure from
mostly Muslim Bengali settlers. There was genocide of the
Chakma and Buddhists by Islamists in East P'aki~tan. The

Chakma spiritual practices are a blend of Buddhism/
Vaishnavism.
Buddhist institution flourished in eastern India right until
the Islamic invasion.
Buddhism still survives among the Barua (through
practicing VaishnavalHindu elements), a community of Bengalil
Magadh descent that migrated to Chittagong region. Indian
Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal.
Buddhism survived in Gilgit and Baltistan until 13-14th
Century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In
Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism
survives to this day. The historic prevalence and history of
Tibetan Buddhism in the above mentioned Northern regions
of Jammu and Kashmir is reported in the Rajatarangini of
Kalhana written sometime during 1147-1149 CE. In Tamilnadu
and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15-16th century. At
Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist idols were cast and
inscribed until this time and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara
stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867. In the
South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.
Revival: On pilgrimage to Bodh Gaya in 1891, the Sri
Lankan Buddhist leader Angarik Dharmapala was shocked to
find the temple in the hands of a Shaivite priest t the Buddha
image transformed into a Hindu icon and Buddhists barred
from worship. The Buddhist revival then began in India, when
he founded the Maha Bodhi Society. The organization's initial
efforts were for the purpose of resuscitation of Buddhism in
India and of restoring the ancient Buddhist shrines at Bodh
Gaya Sarnath and Kushinara. The Buddhist renaissance
inaugurated by Anagarika Dharmapala through his
Mahabodhi Movement is also described as "conservative" for it
held the Muslim Rule in India responsible for the decay of
Buddhism in India in the then current mood of Hindu-Buddhist
brotherhood. The organization's initial efforts were to restore
various Buddhist shrines that had been neglected under Hindu
administration, and to open to the public various Buddhist sites
40 Buddh ism and Dalits : Social Philos ophy and 1}aditi ons
and templ es that had been destro yed in variou s period s of

Musli m invasi on.
Later in the 1950s Bhimr ao RaI1l.ii Ambe dkar pionee red the
Dalit Budd hist move ment in lndia. Dr. Ambe dkar saw
conver sion to Islam and to Christ ianity as a factor contri buting
to the "denat ionalis ation" of India. The reviva l movem ent of
Buddh ism in India under went a major chang e when after
publis hing a series of books and article s arguin g that Buddh ism
was the only way for the untou chabl es to gain equali ty,
Ambe dkar publicly conve rted on Octob er 14, 1956 in Nagpu r
and then in turn led a mass- conve rsion cerem ony for over
380,00 0 dalits. Many other such mass-c onvers ion cerem onies
organ ized since and has becom e a politic ally charge d issue.
Since Ambe dkar's conve rsion, numer ous simila r many more
people from differe nt castes have conve rted to Buddh ism. Many
Dalits emplo y the term "Ambe dkar (ite) Buddh ism" to design ate
the Budd hist movem ent, which starte d with Ambe dkar's
conve rsion.
In 1959 Tenzin Gyatso , the 14th Dalai Lama transit ioned
from Tibet to India and set up the govern ment of Tibet in Exile
in Dhara msala , India, which is often referr ed to as "little
Lhasa ." Tibeta n exiles numbe ring severa l thousa nd have since
settle d in the town. Most of these exiles live in Uppe r
Dhara msala , or McLe od Ganj, where they estab lished
monas teries, temple s and schools. The town is someti mes known
as "Little Lhasa" , after the Tibeta n capita l city, and has become
one of the center s of Buddh ism in the world.
2
Globalisation and Dalits
c. D. Naik
How globalization helped socio-cultural movements of the

poor? Privatisation and marketisation process acted against
emancipation project and tended to engulf entire dalit
population in its anti-social impact. They promoted vilest and
venomous onslaughts on dalits, minorities, reservations,
subsidy, and positive discrimination with derision and
vehemence. Reforms have obliterated dalit consciousness formed
over centuries long struggle and fortified reactionary regimes
against entire oppressed people thirsting for radical change.
Privatisations aggravated present civil society's swallowing of
reservations as unrightfully share of dalits and minimalist role
for the state both combined with bureaucracy, and judiciary
created impediments in implementation of this policy. Dalit
candidate qualifying without any concession not to be placed
in the reserved seat implied that the percentage representation
of dalits in services or educational institutions would be more
than its prescribed value, and that dalits are intrinsically an
inferior specie. Privatisation hit reservation policy, the sole
contributor to advancement of the dalits.
Adam Smith (1776) with Wealth of Nations was held as the
father of capitalism, who advocated free trade and regulated
State's role in economy of the nation. John Maynard Keynes
(1930) put forth his critique of wealth of Nations in terms of
full employment and capitalism. Joint efforts of the Government
and financial institutions worked successfully till 1960. USA
emerged as one and only such state which harnessed the State-
cum-bank ideology and became global leader of capitalist order.
It went along this course to the extent of dictating the erring
states like Italy in 1948 and assumed the role of political leader
and financial banker too during the post-war period. Then came
Nixon who waged war against debts and released capital flow.
Thus, the real economy of joint efforts of state and bank

coordination produced 90 percent result to productivity but
speculation crept in and this joint venture declined in giving
productivity. Consequently public interest benefits reduced to
10 percen:' in 1971-1990 and 5 percent in 1995.
The philosophy of globalization rested on neo-liberalism,
rule of market, withdrawal of state, cut in public expenditure,
in social services, no public good and the principle that private
sector overcomes inefficiency of public sector by free market
dynamics.
As the corporate sector, private economy or profit
maximization replaced its dependence on other factors of
production, perpetual environmental degradation, inequality
and poverty ensued. International monetary fund and world
bank provided stabilization programmes amidst such crises in
the world. They were adopted as panic-drive and not as strategy
with a vision of long-term development in India also.
Globalisation in India
As crisis-package against fall in foreign exchange reserve,
rise in inflation, public and current account deficits and
mounting foreign and domestic debts India, like every other
world nation, accepted globalization in July 1991.
It was compelled to do so by political crisis such as rise and
fall of two governments in four months from November 1990
to March 1991, deferment of representation of union budget,
assassination of former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi, shift from
majority rule, and loss of confidence among leaders in India and
abroad.
Position of Dalits
Out of 13.8 million Dalits 1.1 million (08%) made use of
reservation in 1991. More than 75 per cent dalit workers are
connected with land, 25% being marginal and small farmers
and 50 % landless labourers. In urban areas they work mainly
in unorganized sector. They belong to two categories of poverty
viz., (1) ultra poor and, (2) poverty line poor. As such they suffer
from poverty including deprivation of food, income and
employment and, being socially disadvantaged group Dalits
Globalisation and Dalits 43
suffer from backwardness in education, discrimination in

employment, atrocities and suppression in social, cultural and
religious matter.
IMF and World Bank
These two world financial institutions offered two
programmes on macro-economic stabilization and socio-econornic
structural changes. The former included seven items as follows:
1. Devaluation of currencies for making exchange rate
more realistic
2. Imports without restrictions
3. Fiscal Deficits and balance of payments to be reduced
or eliminated
4. Decontrolled exchange rate and interest rate
5. All subsidies to be reduced or eliminated
6. Free entry of foreign financial institutions and
introduction of financial structure reforms, and
7. Complete outonomy of central bank to pursue
independent economic policy.
Structural References
Its structural reforms incorporated (1) decontrol of
industries, (2) privatization of government-owned entities, (3)
export-led growth structure, (4) free entry of foreign capital and
technology without any let, hindrance or conditons, (5) free
entry and exit of foreign firm including financial and service
industries, (6) free cross border movement of capital and other
funds, (7) protection of intellectual property rights by legislative
safeguards and (8) creation of legal climate for enforcement of
legal contracts, private property rights, and (9) free entry and
exit of business and firms both industrial and financial.
Economic Crisis World Over-Status
Fall in living standard, widespread riots and socio-political
unrest are the stories of other countries during reform periods.
GDP growth rate fell due to reforms. Trickle can never be equal
to outpour. Latin America's growth rate exceeded that of
industrial countries including USA before but it suffered later
during reform period. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Peru
had per capita income level ten decade ahead in 1970 but its
average real growth rates of per capita income level had gone
ten decades back from 1980 to 1985. GDP growth rates fell in
Columbia and were erratic in Ghana, Indonesia, Ivory Coast
and other subject countries despite IMF and World Bank
assertions to the contrary. Unemployment went up in
Venezuela. Industrial wages declined in African and Latin
American countries, Tanzania, Zambia, Bolivia, Costa Rica,
Egypt and Kenya. Gross Domestic investment declined in
Philippines, and social expenditure declined in West Asia.
Investment in social infrastructure suffered in Sri Lanka,
Turkey, Guyana and Sudan, Somalia and Tanzania, Morocco,
and Ecuador by cut in spending on health, education and food
subsidy.
According to UNICEF report there are 53.6% poor families
(l992) in Bulgaria, 21.3% poverty in Hungary (1991), 18.2%
poverty (1992) in Czech Republic, 41.4% in Poland, 51.1% in
Rumania, 43.8% in Russia and 30.2% in Slovakia excluding
more percentage of child poverty in those countries. Mongolia
had 25% population living below 10 dollars a month poverty
line. Mortality rate also increased in these countries due to
decline in living standard. In east European countries
unemployment also soared to 6.5 million in 1992. Inflation too
hit them. Exemplary country for free market advocates-Poland
had industrial cities with 16% unemployed and more in rural
areas, 14% of people lived on doles and one third of total families
lived below official poverty line.
Inequality in the world has been consistently growing. Low
income countries' per capita income fell from 584 to 380 dollars
and their share in total income fell from 5.44 % to 4.83 % but
per capita income for rich countries went up from 17,080 to
23,090 dollars between 1988 and 1993. Gap between poor and
rich increased by 30 % over the last decade. Reforms enriched
billionaires in USA from 49 to 120, in Asia Pacific region from
40 to 86, in Europe from 36 to 91 and in West Asia and Mrica
from 8 to 14, according to the Forbes magazine of July 18,1994.
As on today (loth October 2008) the front page news of the
English Daily is "World on brink of recession", "Iceland (North
Atlantic Island nation) called Nordic Tiger may go bankrupt",
first national casualty of financial meltdown revealed from

Washington and Reykjavik respectively that "The US financial
crisis has gone global, putting the world on the brink of
recession that can only be resolved through international
cooperation, International Monetary Fund management
director Dominique Strauss-Kahn said on Thursday." And "The
Government of Iceland on Thursday seized control of the
country's largest bank-the third Bank takeover this
week-and suspended trading on the stock market, as the North
Atlantic Island nation grapples with an unprecedented financial
meltdown that has made it the first national casualty of the
global economic crisis."!
Effects of Globalisation Philosophy on India
Impact on Food Security: Budgetary outlay on agriculture
and irrigation, subsidy on fertilizer, devaluation of rupee by 25
per cent, diversion of land to export production of non-food
primary products, corporate farming for export horticulture and
floriculture, and exportable surplus of food grains and dairy
products in the developed countries that craved for market, and
international market for agriproducts being a monopoly of three
to six giant companies, whose control over market extended to
80 to 90 per cent, and increasing level of export of foodgrains
for foreign exchange earning, non-cost effective export thrust
as showed, in Africa have impaired food security of people.
Reforms in banking led to squeeze on agriculture lending under
this philosophy.
Reduction in Food Subsidy: As a measure of ensuring food
security to the large masses of Indian population, public
distribution system was instituted in India in the wake of the
calamity of the Great Bengal famine 1942-43 and the World
War n, with 4,24,000 fair price shops, but despite the fact that
Goverhment subsidized food distributed through PDS and
stored in FCI, reduction in subsidy and increase in FCI cost
threatened food security for the poor.
Promising income from wheat crop resulted its substitution
by coarse cereals, which too dwindled in output, and
endangeref1 food security of poor people.
Globalisation philosophy threatened food security by
reducing food and raising early procurement and issue prices
of rice and wheat and by passing it on to consumers. Off-take

of wheat and rice came down. Export attraction of wheat led
to shortage from situation of surplus met by expensive imports.
Difference between consumer-end PDS retail prices and
market prices became marginal and unaffordable prices made
the poor to cut their consumption that led them to starvation
death under this philosophy.
Impact on Dalits : Fall of pt::;r capita net availability of
cereals imd pulses impacted Dalits more severely than shown
by average. Malnutrition of women was more than it was for
men due to male preference attitude of Indians. As many as
350 children died of malnutrition in Amravati District of
Maharashtra-the most industrial and relatively progressive
state in India under this philosophY.
This philosophy induced by world bank advice to further
reduce food subsidy and wanting to target only BPL poor under
PDS cover since not-so-poor left it for market price purchase
being equal to retail PDS price it provided only 16.6 million
tones or 36% of requirement against 46.5 million tones of
requirement offoodgrains for even BPL poor of 1991 level. This
new scheme based on the executive's reluctance to acknowledge
poverty further pushed many people to starve and die.
Inflation
Reduction in budget and fiscal deficit, devaluation,
privatization, elimination or reduction in subsidies and export
promotion unleashed by this philosophy contributed directly to
inflation which hit poor people the hardest. It also resulted in
curtailment of capital expenditure and decline in capital
formation. Fall in public components can lead to fall in output
and with inelastic wages caused inflation. It contained
budgetary deficit and furthered privatization. Increase in prices
gave fillip to inflationary spiral in the economy.
Devaluation of currency contributed to inflation by raising
cost of import of petroleum crude and its products as raw
materials that entered into domestic production or consumption.
Most of these imported products being of common use
contributed to the rise of general price level also. Devaluation

made imported products for home users dearer. It had multiplier
effects. Price rise was effected by this philosophy through
devaluation of rupee, export-led growth, import, reduction of
custom and excise duties, increase in money supply and huge
flow of foreign exchange elevating general price leveL Cuts in
food and fertilizer subsidies and free market disposition also
contributed to the general price rise.
Employment
Globalisation philosophy raised jobs in private sector but not
in public sector, organized or unorganized sector, non-
agricultural rural or urban informal sector, central government
establishment and in employment exchange as a result of
contraction in public expenditure. Small scale industries also
suffered under banks charging high interest rate, collapse of
demand for their products and liberalization of imports of capital
goods. Big industries overpowered the sick industries and cut
employments.
Unemployment in agriculture and non-agriculture rural
sector rose to 25 million including 10 million of those from
unorganized urban and non-agricultural rural areas due to
reduction of bank credit to them. Foreign investment companies
earned 5,472 billion dollars sales equivalent to 27 times India's
GDP producing only 25 million jobs not equivalent to even third
of its sale amount in 1992. Corporate farm and contract system
descended in agriculture and turned marginal and middle
farmers jobless. The cropping pattern of capitalist farms tended
to make unskilled agricultural workers redundant.
As exemplified by 110 weavers of Andhra Pradesh
starvation deaths were caused due to unemployment catalysed
by export thrust and unmindful of demand of the domestic
requirements.
As is evident from Pepsi which brought in its technology to
convert potatoes in chips and sell them at a price 80 times over,
import of modern technology and investment with its financial
and organizational superiority and imperative global
compeCitiveness rendered millions to joblessness,
deindustrialization or restructuring and downsizing of domestic
companies.
48 Buddh ism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and Traditions
Restru cturin g of compa nies under compe titive pressu re

involv ed engag ing foreig n consu ltancy firms for millio ns of
dollar s threat ening native consul ting firms into seekin g allianc e
with foreign firms for sheer surviv al. As a result of reorga nizing
state units under compe titive pressu re nation alized banks
declar ed 4 lakh person s surplu s, Railwa ys stoppe d recrui tments
,
and Depar tment of Post and Teleco mmun ication was to retren ch
2 lakh worke rs. Even as the value of fixed assets of sampl
e
compa nies rose by 27% regula r emplo yment fell by 3.3 per cent.
Share of contra ct and non-r egula r emplo ymen t in total
emplo yment rose to one third in 1993.
Strate gies of labou r flexib ilisati on, indivi dual contra ct,
subco ntract ing and outsou rcing, and multi- skill worke rs in
manag ement , inform al sector, busine sses and HRD led to death
of trade llllioni sm, casual labour , and hiring and firing practic es,
and labour exploi tation.
Impa ct on Pover ty
Pover ty is owing to 50% rural farmin g househ olds having
less than one acre land and needin g supple menta ry work in
non-ag ricultu re sector or sundr y works related to farm. Cause d
by Gover nment cut in povert y allevia tion progra mmes despit e
its huma n face reform s in 1994- 95 and 1995- 96, budge
t
increa se for alarm ing situat ion and politic al electio n gain
provid ing less than 20 days work per person a year at Rs. 2l.
Cut in expen diture on diseas e preve ntion and contro l
progra mmes after 1990-9 1 by centre withdr awing assista nce to
states under social sector progra mmes povert y prone diseas es
like T.B., Malar ia, Fileria , lepros y and epidem ics like Plague
,
Jaund ice, Influe nza, Pneum onia and Dengu e emerg ed and
reeme rged durin g reform period furthe r aggra vated the
situati on.
Impa ct on Socie ty
Consc ious creati on of world order, gover ning it and
transf ormin g it into moral order was defied by marke t reform
and global ization . The social disadv antage suffere d by the dalits
was taken note of in the const itutio n of India throu gh
safegu ards of social elevat ion, educa tional progre ss, cultur al
preservation and religious freedom, economic upliftment and

political participation and right of livelihood or employment.
Positive discrimination embodied in these safeguards are not
compatible with Reform spirit, which goes against one vote one
value system since market grants moneyed person more value.
Dalits will aspire for change against odds of upper caHte-class-
reform's attitudinal resistance.
Impact on Educational Institutions
How globalization affected reservation and financial
assistance in educational institutions? Globalisation freezed
grants to many institutions on basis of which they admitted
dalit students whose parents income is below specified level,
being eligible for freeship, and scholarship and it stagnated
expenditure on education. Commercialisation of education
offered specialized education from capitalist social utility point
of view, ignored dalit, individual justice and manipulated its
product-prices with hefty dollar equivalent in alliance with
many foreign universities. HMs and HTs raised fee and other
prices many fold and went beyond the reach of dalits, how
much more so when they were self-financed. It polarized elites
and commoners on educational job market level and
development portals.
Impact on Reservation
How global liberalized privatization affected reservation? In
organized private sector there is no dalit employee except for
scrubbing floors and cleaning latrines in contrast to
representation of dalits in proportion to their population in all
the public services including government, public sector,
autonomous bodies and institutions receiving grant-in-aid from
government. Privatization shook the foundation of reservation,
nay the economic means of livelihood, social prestige for at least
1.5 million landless labourers' sons and daughters, bureaucratic
authority for at least 50,000 dalits, hope, and bond with nation
and constitution.
How can there be reservation policy implementation when
there is no state agency to act on it as the reform envisaged
minimalist state, public sector privatized, denationalized,
disinvested and endangered by reform package. Public sector
undertakings and Joint Venture Companies together share

49:51 eqllity stake and the former turning out to be financial
holding companies nullifY reservation policy. Same is true about
other public services released for private investment in the
pretext of super imposition of utility view.
Impact on Education
Globalization divided vernacular and English schools on
primary educational level. Corporatisation transformed
education into an profit enterprise benchmarking its input, and
product of city and town in job market against vernacular
medium village student, not to speak of dalit student, who is
the last even among rural backward socio-economic-cultural
scenario fraught with alarming rate of school dropouts due to
his supplementing his meager family income and disillusioned
at education being an instrument of revolution and growing
more aggressive as reforms progress.
Impact on Atrocities on Dalits and Weaker Sections
How atrocities are augmented under reform regime? There
were no atrocities of the kind Dalits experienced during this
saner globalization period. They are in the form of physical
punishment as dalit minds are enlightened enough to thwart
dominant's subjugation. They are perpetrated by rough middle
castes succeeding the traditional refined upper caste for their
assertion of human rights and competition on equal platforms
with themselves and winning them away in some cases with
the .help of reservations. Thus atrocities are dependent on the
factors of dependence on middle castes powered further by
reform boost to caste system of inequality reinforced by
reduction in jobs, deteriorating health care, expensive education
and biased income distribution and so on. Has the new reform
given dalits land in rural setting? It, on the contrary, acted on
depeasantisation of Indian agriculture and consolidation of their
holdings for their corporate farming. It has thus made collective
farming ideology of Dr. Ambedkar's conception neutralized. Its
ally will be the rich farmers of the village as part of the
management of corporate structure making marginal, small
farmers and vulnerable dalits more dependent.
Impact of Caste and Culture

Will caste go with reform? Far from striving for economic
equality the reforms tend to accentuate existing inequalities.
Neither caste nor feudalism can be neutralised completely by
capitalism as contradictory forces. So caste would co-exist with
Reforms. Privatization and free market as components of
globalization established inequality, reducation of food, Job and
addition of atrocities.
Vision: Which has something to do with future. It is a hope
for better and excelling life led in the past and being treaded
upon now also. It is but a creative energy input in the
innovation of some tool never discovered before and efficiently
working fifty or hundred years ahead of its time.
From Agriculture Shift: According to the current
knowledge every person of estimated 15 billion people in 50
years hence needs an average of 0.9 hectares of arable laIld
for his needs, taking into account the conventional agricultural
method. The earth altogether has a land surface of 3.2 billion
hectares. The said document described that if the agriculture
is to become an agrarian (food) factories, in which a farmer will
act as a food-chemist in order to feed 15 billion people with good
quality food in sufficient quantities the earth will need six
times as much food as is produced today. Conventional
agriculture cannot achieve this on its own, it will not be possible
to eliminate hunger from this world. The moving from outdoor
fields to the light flooded halls of modern agrarian factories has
already started. Food can be produced everywhere on this earth
without farmland, and it can be harvested the whole year
round. At the beginning of the next century 50% of the world's
food supply could already be produced synthetically. Division
of agriculture into industries and analysis of the needs of these
industries are to be taken into account.
Recycling of Raw Materials: Soon, there will be no more
raw materials, and then there will not be any more new
products, and our throw-away society will become a dying
society. The only way to cope with our throw-away industrial
society is to turn it into a natural cycle, as it does in nature. A
tree grows, dies, decomposes and thus provides the basic
material for the growth of a new tree civilization. In the same
way our throw-away industrial society must recycle the whole

of industry.
If the scrap products of the industrialized world are recycled
then the raw materials not yet exploited are sufficient for the
development of the non-industrialised countries of the earth
and for the growing population. In the Federal Republic of
Germany alone every year we produce 400 million cubic meters
of waste (approx. 800-1,000 kg for one cubic meter). There will
still be "rich" and "poor" but "poor" in this world of 15 billion
people will mean a life with all technical achievements and all
social possibilities.
The said IFM opined on survival, advertising, capital, and
technology in the form of an advice as follows:
Make use of the experiences of the past in order to master
the future. In a competitive market there is no security without
continuous struggle. Advertising has to be truthful. Increasing
returns can be better than reducing costs. Profit is an
indispensable reward for the performance of a company. Be
technically flexible and innovative.
According to David Ben Gurion, "Anyone who doesn't
believe in miracle is not a realist. 2"
Our vision gives only a tiny idea of the living conditions on
our earth within a conceivable period of time.
Exceptions to the Trend of Decline
The notable exception to the above is the experience of East
Asian countries-People's Republic of China, Indonesia, Korea,
Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Indochina, where
population below poverty line declined from 35% to 10% over
this period, where social indicators, viz., life expectancy, infant
mortality, adult literacy and population growth improved
impressively due to their specific historical setting, high levels
of literacy, particularly female literacy, and substantially better
health standards. Better female participation in the labour force
led to rapid increase in household and overall domestic saving
rates. Their higher level of social consumption with relatively
better distribution of incomes and wealth vastly widened the
demand of those economies and facilitates more broad based
53
Globalisation and Dalits
develo pment . Highe r literac y and health standa rds were the
most crucia l factors in enhan cing labour productivity, which in
turn went to facilitate significant impor t substi tution and export
promo tion3 •
Globa lizatio n, Agric ultura l Crise s and Socio -Econ omic
Justic e from Ambe dkari an Parad igm
Dr. Ambe dkar viewe d societ y as an ocean of men and
wome n and mater ial forces and living species includ ing anima ls
and variou s living organi sms intera cting and sustai ning life of
human and inorga nic worlds in such a way as to suppo rt the
entire planet in balanc ed and health y growin g manne r.
Globa lizatio n has come to mean a free flow of labour ,
capita l, goods and servic es, and techno logy across the world
throu gh borde rs of every natio n-stat e for the profit
maxim izatio n of the few corpo rate compa nies and wider
depriv ations of the margi nal peasan ts and landle ss worke rs with
nation -state promo ting privat ization to the extent of 51 per cent
of resour ces share alloca ted to them agains t 49 per cent of that
for dome stic purpo se, in cahoo ts with foreig n financ ial
institu tions and banks , decont rolling and deregu lation for big
indust ries and reduct ion in subsid ies, in public spend ing, in
budge t outlay s, impor t duties , with expor t-orie ntatio n,
devalu ation of curren cy and merce rizatio n of foodgr ains and
values of socio-economic life.
Food suppl y is relate d to public distri bution system ,
subsid ies for FeI for transp ortatio n, storag e and supply, to cash
crops in place of cereal s and pulses , to export of foodgr ains at
the cost of indige nous peopl e's starva tion to death , to
impor tation of dear produ cts from foreig n compa nies, to
hortic ulture and floricu lture domin ating agricu lture and to loss
of jobs for many and accum ulation of profit for the corpor ate
sector of three to six compa nies comin g togeth er for tradin g
across the globe.
Inflati on is a part of the proces s of global ization , which
increa ses supply of money in larger propo rtion to that of
produ cts and try to maint ain deficit and foreig n excha nge
reserv e, cuttin g credit for agricu ltural share in the GDP and
soarin g foodgr ains prices , partic ularly retail ones nullify ing
difference between the procurement price and issue price

against the market price and compelling the population on ultra
and marginal poverty line to consume less, live shortly and die
in a large number unreported, unsung and unrepented by the
concerned.
Unemployment is the corollary of cumulative effect of
capitalist incentive over labour welfare and state responsibility
for all round development and sustainable environmental
concern.
Dr. Ambedkar was a real economist, who recognized the roles
of capital, labour, land, rent and entrepreneur in any firm or
industry. He was not in favour of 1776's Adam Smith's Wealth
of Nations' argument favouring capitalist class interests at the
cost of life of the working class. He inclined to endorse the view
of 1930's John Meynard Keyne's Labour intensive employment
theory for maximum production with proportional investment
of capital. He also recognized the twin enemies of society, viz.
ca.ste and capital. In the current globalization imperial era
scenario his dream of transforming social order into moral order
would remain a distant ideal if our nation too blindly imitated
the American model of false economic theories and praxis and
ignored the real economist vision and voice of the poor and
socially disadvantaged upheld by Dr. Ambedkar. 4
Ambedkar's Philosophy
Dr. Ambedkar said on Small Holdings in India that "The
evil of small holdings in India is not fundamental but is derived
from the parent evil of the mal-adjustment in her social
economy." (p. 472, Vol. 1)
On a love of money criticized by Bertrand Russell without
inquiring into the purpose of it, Dr. Ambedkar set the matter
right by saying that "In a healthy mind, it may be urged, there
is no such thing as a love of money in the abstract. Love of
money is always for something and it is the purpose embodied
in that "for something" that will endow it with credit or cover
it with shame. 5 (Vol. 1, p. 489)
On deficit Dr. Ambedkar opined that "What has disquieted
me is this, that the deficit in the budget is not due to any

inclusion in it of a large policy of social advancement."
(p. 4, Vol. 2)
On Government duties Dr. Ambedkar advised that
education, public health, medical relief, and water supply are
by common standards now prevailing in all modern countries,
other duties which Government must undertake, I find, are
unemployment benefit, sickness insurance, old-age pensions,
maternity benefits and premature death benefits to
dependents. 6 " (p. 14, Vol. 2)
World of Righteousness
Dr. Ambedkar's philosophy of righteous world order is
summarised in his magnum opus The Buddha and His
Dhamma, which lays a foundation of moral order from the
existing social order. The world of righteousness lies on earth
and is to be reached by man by righteous conduct. To remove
misery each one of the people must learn to be righteous in his
conduct in relation to others and thereby make the earth the
democracy of righteousness (p. 283). Panch Shila, Ashtang
Marga and Paramitas can make man righteous. Only
righteousness can remove this inequity and the resultant
misery.
Two functions are necessary to practice righteousness, (1)
to know what is right and what is wrong and, (2) to follow right
and not to follow wrong.
Further two things of absolute necessity for this are:
(1) Training of man's instincts and dispositions. If there
is no training of the mind to turn bad dispositions into
good dispositions there is no use of not committing fresh
misdeeds by expiration and purge of former misdeeds
as explained in Jain philosophy. A good disposition is
the only permanent foundation and guarantee of
permanent goodness. Training of the mind is the same
as the training of a man's disposition and (2) Courage
to stand by what is right even if one is alone. Referring
to Sallekha-sutta of the Buddha Word he narrated that
''You are to expunge by resolving that, though others
may be harmful, you will be harmless. Though others
may kill, you will never kill, though others may steal,
you will not. Though others may not lead the higher
life, you will. Though others may lie, traduce,
denounce, or prattle, you will not. Though others may
be covetous, you will covet not. Though others may be
malignant, you will not be malignant. Though others
may be given over to wrong views, wrong aims, wrong
speech, wrong actions, and wrong concentration, you
must follow (the Noble Eightfold Path in) right
outlook, right aims, right speech, right actions, right
mode of livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and
right concentration. Though others are wrong about
the truth and wrong about Deliverance, you will be
right about truth and right about Deliverance. Though
others may be possessed by sloth and torpor, you will
free yourselves therefrom. Though others may be
puffed up, you will be humble-minded. Though others
may be perplexed by doubts, you will be free from
them. Though others may harbour wrath, malevolence,
envy, jealousy, niggardliness, avarice. hypocrisy, deceit,
imperviousness, arrogance, forwardness, association
with bad friends, slackness, unbelief, shamelessness,
unscrupulousness, lack of instruction, inertness,
bewilderment, and unwisdom, you will be the reverse
of all these things. Though others may clutch at and
hug the temporal or loose their hold thereon, you will
clutch and hug the things that are not temporal, and
will ensue Renunciation".
It is the development of the will which is so efficacious for
right states of consciousness, not to speak of act and speech.
And therefore, Cunda there must be developed the will to all
the foregoing resolves the Buddha had detailed8. (pp. 285-286)
Revolution in Antique Vs Modern Society
How Dr. Ambedkar distinguished modern society from
ancient and tribal society on the criterion judging ideal scheme
of government through revolution is shown by the
following excerpts culled from his writings and speeches volume
3 thus:
At one end of the Revolution was the antique society with

its Religious ideal in which the end was society. At the other
end of the Revolution is the modern society with its Religious
ideal in which the end is the individual. To put the same fact
in terms of the norm it can be said that the norm or the
criterion, for judging right and wrong in the antique society
was utility (food, clothing, shelter, education, health of the
citizens in the socialist countries as the responsibility of the
State) while the norm or the criterion for judging right and
wrong in the modern society is justice (liberalism, neo-liberalism
from 1776 Adam Smith to 1930 Keynes, corporatisation,
privatisation, globalisation of the present time). The Religious
revolution was not thus a revolution in the religious organisation
of society resulting in the shifting of the centre-from society
to the individual-it was a revolution in the norms to judge
what is right and wrong in the conduct of men and was
appropriate to current notion of what constitutes the moral
good. Justice as a criterion became appropriate to the modern
world in which individual being the end, the moral good was
held to be something which does justice to the individual. If it
is said that these norms are not transcendental enough;
Ambedkar's reply would be that if a norm whereby one is to
judge the philosophy of religion must be Godly, it must also be
earthlyB. (p. 22)
Findings
1. Globalisations has pro-rich bias. Reform programmes
worsened conditions of poor people in the world unless
guarded by local conditions and cultures as has
happened in East Asia. Dalits in India have been the
worst victims of the Bretton Wood Institutions. They
have been affected doubly as socially disadvantaged
and economically deprived masses of people. Indian
reforms are more crises driven than strategically
planned. Whether in form of common minimum
programme of the later government or in that of feel
good factor of the former one the economic reform of
India missed the reality and momentous feature of the
situation.
2. In Indian agrarian economy over 70 per cent of its
population live in villages. Its heinous socio-cultural
inequality defies any statistical description and depth.

It has inequalities abiding in economic and socio-
cultural terms. Its capability poor amounts to 554
million (61.5 %). Its rank among 174 descending
poverty countries is 135. It has income poor to the
extent of 229 million as per the Human Development
Report 1996.
3. India has a parallel economy in black money as is
shown by the recent spate of seams. Reforms have
given them boost. Whatever little surfaced is a tip of
an iceberg. This black money is unofficially estimated
by world bank to the tune of 100 billion dollars,
Finance India (September 1995 Issue) estimated that
the range of such capital outflows was between $1065
million to $ 1370 million in 1993. A sum of $ 10 billion
shown in the non-resident account belongs to resident
Indians. Reforms can bring in just four to five billion
dollars of foreign direct investment a year but political
will can give it the above scam and black money to
better its destiny in multiple way9.
4. Dr. Ambedkar's aim of transforming world social order
into righteous global order was adversely affected by
capitalist privatized corporate market economy
neglecting human labour and its contribution for new
products and new order of humanity.
Suggestions
1. India should unearth the black money treasure and
instead of capital she must invest political will and
power to revolutionize society both economically and
socially.
2. Government should understand that its nation has its
own reality and there is need of growing a widespread
purchasing power for free and sustainable market
reforms in economy.
3. The reform strategy should embody sustainable
economic empowerment of the rural masses; investment
to enhance their capability and effective measures for
accelerated development of the disadvantaged people

by means of radical land reform, massive rural
investment in agricultural infrastructural projects,
universalisation of primary education, primary health
care system, reinforced positive discrimination policy,
freedom from fear of basic survival, fraternity in place
of fratricidal caste system, and elimination of reframed
and more vigorously effected discrimination measure
after dalits have come on par with general population.
4. No radical change is possible without dalit
participatiQn.
References
1. Free Press, Indore, 10th October 2008, front page.
2. Corporate named IFM from Internet Surfing on 5th October
2008.
3. Dr. Anand Teltumbde, Globalisation and the Dalits, Internet
Surfing dated October 5, 2008 Dr. Ambedkar, The Buddha
and His Dhamma, Mumbai, 1957, reprint 200l.
4. C.D. Naik, Social and Political Thought of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, New Delhi, 2007.
5. The Writings and Speeches of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Vol.
I, Mumbai, Education Department, Government of
Maharashtra.
Il, Mumbai, Education Department, Government of
Maharashtra.
7. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, The Buddha and His Dhamma, Peoples
Education Society, Mumbai, 1957.
Ill, Mumbai, Education Department, Government of
Maharashtra.
9. EPW Research Foundation (1994): Three Years of Economic
Reform in India, EPW Research Foundation, Bombay,
pp. 6-9, ibid.
3
Social Message of Buddhism
C.D. Naik
Social Message of Buddhism

The last and most popular book on social Buddhism by Dr.
Ambedkar is Buddha and His Dhamma. In this book he asked
whether Buddhism had any social message to humanity
suffering from social ills and answered it positively with
references culled from the original Tripitaka texts. Sigalovada
sutta, for example, gave one of such message in which the
Buddha specified how ideal family and ideal society should live
and maintain themselves. Talking about social religion Dr.
Ambedkar gave three yardsticks to judge the sociality of any
religion, including Buddhism, namely, equality, liberty and
fraternity. Adopting the Mill, Bergson, Plato, Altekar and other
social scientists' measures of judging religious social values Dr.
Ambedkar postulated that Buddhism and Buddhist India gave
these values as revolution to counter the gospel of inequality,
slavery and hatred propagated in the name of religion in the
world in general and India in particular.
Buddhism also believed that parents not only transmit body
to their offspring but character also unlike the thinking of the
soul believers. According to Ambedkar 'social Buddhism gave
three things in combination-Understanding, Equality and
Love, which no other religion does. Understanding to remove
superstition and supernaturalism and have correct view,
Samata or equality to hold all beings equal and respectable,
and Karuna or love to help any sentient being in crisis.' This
is all man wants for a happy life. And this is why he liked
Buddhism in comparison to other religions.
It is interesting to note that American Professor Christopher
Queen admired Dr. Ambedkar as having unique vision of social
transformation through Buddhist strategy and goals and

compared him with Thich Nhat Hanh of Vietnam, Sulak
Sivaraksha of Thailand, Dalai Lama of Tibet and other socio-
spiritual leaders of the world, nay, has even designated his
Dhamma as the Fourth Turning of the Wheel.
According to Ambedkar all religions are neither same nor
of similar values but some are ethically more advanced and
superior, of them Buddhism is the best and teaches sublimest
message of social unity and mental faculty par excellence.
Democracy, Religion and Society: Meaning
In Quebec Peace Conference Dr. Ambedkar represented his
view that westerners are mistaken in the conception of
democracy as voting system of adult franchise and religion as
belief system of god, soul, and personal purification only and
society as hierarchy of caste, race, gender, nationality, colour,
language and so on. But he declared that democracy is a way
of life of an individual and his association; religion is not only
knowing truth but also loving it, and society is free
communicative educational relationship of improvement of life
and its constituents from one end to the other without social
barriers.
Asian World Contribution to Buddhism
As the inheritor and successor of Indian Buddhist way of
life Asia, the largest continent in area and population has its
world role to play in global society to bring in a new better
dispensation of existing conditions through the means of t.heir
legacy of Buddhism. It may be asked whether the North
Vietnamese Buddhists, figuring more than Indian Dalit
Buddhists by 22,000,000 (2007) knew the social significance of
Buddhism? Perhaps they did as during their national freedom
struggle, Thich Quang Duc burnt himself alive on May 11, 1963
in Saigon in response to suppression of religious freedom. And
now they demand social unity between China and Vietnamese.
The Buddhists of Soviet Union contribute largely to the
cause of world peace, national security and the world Buddhist
CO"lgress.
Social Message of Buddh ism 63
Tibet with 9,90,0 00 Budd hists (1967 ) have great er
signifi cance of Buddh ism for their indepe ndenc e and autono my
for the 1,00,0 00 refuge e Buddh ists in India and for keepin g
friend ly relatio nship with China .
Thail and with more than India n Dalit Budd hists by
41,814 ,742 (2007) can maint ain the status of Buddh ism as
Vinay a practic ing nation and set its examp le for the other Asian
nation s.
Taiwa n with its 24,522,395 Buddh ists (2007) can contri bute
to educat ion of the Dham ma preach ers, includ ing both monks
and nuns, highly educa ted and traine d in Japan and Ameri can
unive rsities , and emplo ying the most advan ced mode rn
techni ques to propag ate Buddh ism in secula r society today.
Sri Lanka (2007) with 16,050 ,484 Buddh ists can direct the
world in Highe r Budd hist studie s throu gh its set up of
Unive rsities such as the Unive rsity of Buddh ist and Pali Studie s
in 1982, Dham macha kra Vidya pitha at Gotam be, Perade niya,
Sri Lanka in 1985, etc.
Singap ore with its 12,65, 000 Buddh ists (2007) is very small
and surpas ses any Europ ean countr y in beauty and cleanli ness.
Siberi a (1968) with its 1,2,65,000 Buddh ists can follow the
USSR patter n.
Pakis tan (2007) with its 1,64,7 42 Buddh is can preser ve
Buddh ist civiliz ation, art and sculpt ure in and around Gandh ar
region near Taxila and Pesha war, Lahor e and Karac hi.
Nepal (2007) with its 60,69, 376 Buddh ists can glorify itself
as the birthp lace of Buddh a if only it would materi alize, in the
words of late U Thant "The word Lumbi ni will becom e a forum ,
where the peopl~of the world work togeth er to bring about
peacef ul co-exi stence and planet ary well-b eing, aiding in the
birth of a harmo nious world as envisi oned by the man, who
was born there 2500 years ago and taugh t that peace in the
world begins with peace within oursel ves".
The Buddh ist popula tion of 28,16, 644 of Mongo lia (2007)
had signif icance of social Buddh ism in develo ping their
philos ophica l and nation al consci ousnes s from the writin gs and
inspir ation s of Naga rjuna , Asang a, Dharm akitti , and
Vasub andhu . 1
Malay sian Buddh ists numbe ring 59,70, 800, signifi ed that
Musli ms could be as liberal with Buddh ists as any Buddh ist
with Musli ms in Sri Lanka .
The presen ce of 62,61,118 Buddh ists in Laos (2007) showe d
the pream ble of the Const itution of the Royal Kingd om of Laos
establ ished in the 10th centur y stating that - "Budd hism is the
State Religi on. The king is its high protec tor and he shall be a
devou t Buddh ist".
In North Korea 15,10, 6,650 and South Korea 23,53, 1874
Buddh ists (2007) stresse d social service throug h its educat ional
institu tions despit e being divide d in south and north portio ns
with the comm unist effects as in Vietna m.
Japan 's (2007) 122,33 6,154 Buddh ists repose d their utmos t
faith in Buddh ism with the resoun ding sloga n-Jinr ui no kiki
wo sukuu bukky o raised which meant that Buddh ism resolv ed
the crisis of manki nd.
A popul ation of 5,397, 962 Buddh ists in Indon esia (2007)
forme d the part of the world of India n cultur e with its
magni ficent Buddh ist art works .
India (2007) with 16,947,992 Buddh ists and estima ted more
than 20,000 ,000 Dalit Buddh ists prese nted their mode rn
saviou r Buddh a with his social Dham ma - Dr. Ambe dkar before
the world.
Hong kong (2007 ) have 6,701 ,580 Budd hists but it
establ ished homes for the aged and care centre s to accom modat e
the old people and the cripple d, who have nobod y to turn to
and a Buddh ist hospit al, devoti ng time and energy to the wOFk
of saving life and caring for the sick etc.
China with 1,057, 481,51 0 Buddh ists in 2007 can prove
itself to be elder brothe r caring with specia l favour the intere sts
of all other young er growin g brothe r countr ies and its equal
and senior Broth er or Bhai-I ndia.
Comp ared to other Buddh ist countr ies' popula tion India
stands specta cularl y high in Buddh ist popula tion from 1951 to
the presen t as shown in the following table.
Cl)
BUDDHIST POPULATION IN ASIA (2007)
...c
~
~
.......
8.N. Thar Country Total Buddhist History of Buddhism and
population population other Religions ~
(Percentage to Practiced in the country ~
World
Buddhist
~
.Q,
Population) tx:l
!=!
P...
1 2007
(E)
Central
Asia
95,398,532 2,879,280
(3.018)
Buddhism under Buddhist
Khans ...~
~
;:l
Afghanistan 63.780 (0.2 Buddhism from ancient
approx of P.) time before Christ
till 9 th Century
II Mangolia 2,816,644 Buddhism during the reign
(98) of Mangol Khans,Mangu
III Tajikistan 7,076 (0.1 ofP.) Seceded from USSR after 1991
IV Uzbekistan 55,560 (0.2 of P.) Seceded from USSR after 1991
V Kazakhstan 84,067 (0.55 of P.) Seceded from USSR after 1991
VI Kyrgyzstan 18,495 (0.35) Seceded from USSR after 1991
VII 1968 Siberia 1,265,000 1,265,000 Hulgu Khan rule with Buddhism
VIII 1967 Tibet 1,000,000 990,000 Kuble Khan ruled and Buddhism
Was Set up Since 625 C.E. (j)
01
(Contd.) m
m
S.N. li!ar Country Total Buddhist History of Buddhism and
population population other Religions
(Percentage to Practiced in the country
World tl::l
~
Buddhist ~
~
Population) ....
~
Cl)
~
IX 1977 U.S.S.R. 241,748,000 unlisted Buddhism till 7th century and its ~
revival into Lamaism since 15 th ;::!
~
century t;:,
2 2007 (E) South Asia 1,491,019,011 38,601,550 (2.588) Original Buddhism in Pali texts
....
~
~
I Maldives 1,661 (0.45) Buddhism later centuries '.
m
c
11 Bangla.desh 1,053,138 (0.7) Buddhism since 3 C.B.C. ....
r"
III Bhutan 2,250,014 (97 Buddhism since 8 C.E.

....
~
approx) ....~
....
Buddhism since 6 th C.B.C.
C
IV India 16,947,992 (1.5) Cl)
.g
V Nepal 6,069,376 (21) Asokan pillars testify ancient
~
Buddhism there ~
VI Pakistan 1,64,742 (0.1) Gandhar Buddhism ~

VII Sri Lanka 16,050,484 (76.7) Original Buddhism ~
3 2007 (E) Southeast 592,738,430 216,615,239 Buddhism borrowed from SEA
.........~....
Asia (36.544) c
~
(Contd.)
(Contd.)
CtJ
li!ar Country 0
S.N. Total Buddhist History of Buddhism and ....
~
population population other Religions .....

Q
(Percentage to Practiced in the country

World ~
Cl)
Cl)
Buddhist ~
Population) Cl)
~
~
I Brunei 54,600 (14.4) -=:
~
II Cambodia 13,938,460 Buddhism since 9th Century ~
;::s--
(96.5) 1;;.
;:;
III East Timor 1,085 (0.1%) Buddhism spread later
IV Indonesia 5,397,962 Buddhism till Majopahit
(2.3) dynasty's fall
V Laos 6,261,118 Buddhism as State Religion
(96) since 10th Century
VI Malaysia 5,970,800 (22) Buddhism till medieval period and its
revival since 17th Century
VII Myanmar 43,918,200 (90) Buddhism since 600 C.E.
VIII Philippines 2,276,932 (2.5) Buddhism spread later
IX Singapore 2,781,888 Buddhists of both Theravada
(61.1) and Mahayana traditions
X Thailand 61,814,742 (95) Buddhism of present form since
7 centuries ago CS)
-J
(Contd.)
O'l
(Contd.) 00
S.N. }ear Coun!ry Thtal Buddhist History of Buddhism and

population population other Religions
(Percentage to Practiced in the country t:x:l
World ~
Buddhist
Population)
~.....
Cl)
~
~
XI Vietnam (North) 42,631.178 (50) Buddhism in 189 A.D. ;:l
~
XII Vietnam (South) 74,268,750 (85) Buddhism in 189 A.D. t:::l
~
4 2007 (E) East Asia 1,585,083,298 1,247,740,793 Buddhism adopted earlier .....
"-
1;;'
(78.717) than in SEA
Cr.2
I China 1,057,481,510 Buddhism since 58 C.E. g
(80 approx.) .....
~
......
II Hong Kong 6,701,580 (93) Buddhism for the last 1000 years
~
.....
III Japan 122,336,154 (96) Buddhism since 552 C.E. "-
0
Cl)
IV North Korea 15,106,650 (63.5) Buddhism since 372 C.E. .g

V South Korea 23,531,874 (48) Buddhism since 372 C.E. ~
~
;:l
VI Macau 11,427,436 (23.3) Buddhism's advent later ~
VII Taiwan 24,522,395 (50) Revival of Buddhism ~

~
.....
....
Source: Internet, Free Encyclopaedia 2007. .....
0
;:l
Cl)
Social Message of Buddhism 69
From the above table it is clearly seen that India as a part

of South Asia has its estimated Buddhist population upto
(16,947,992) which surpasses all its Buddhist lands including
Sri Lanka. Among the East Asian seven countries it exceeds the
Buddhist population of Macau, North Korea and Hong Kong.
Out of the twelve countries of Southeast Asia Indian Buddhists
are far more in number than those of Cambodia, East Timor,
Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore. The
whole Central Asian Buddhist demography is more than five
times less than that of Indian Dalit Buddhists.
Major Schools of Buddhism
Since European scholars found Buddhism based on the Pali
canon located in Ceylon and Southeast Asia, they named it
"Southern Buddhism"-in contrast to the Buddhist schools of
East Asia, which at first sight appeared completely different -
referred to collectively as "Northern Buddhism." -
geographically agreeable terms. Both stemmed from India.
The eighteen sects of the lesser Vehicle in India, were not
autonomous Buddhist organizations but tendencies of schools
existing in the same monasteries.
Conservative (Theravadi) and Mahayana both held the
opinion that man must work out his own salvation, and that
man must tread the path by his own efforts. Monastic Order
constitutes the core of Theravada - bound to historical change
through the Sangha. For many centuries not a single letter in
the numerous strict precepts was altered in Conservative
Sangha. Also denied is the elimination or modification of
archaic rules such as the prohibition of any contact with money,
of speaking or travelling with women, of taking meals after
noon, and so forth. The only significant variation from this
teaching has been the dependence of the Pure Land Sect upon
the help of the external power of Amitabha Buddha.
The defmition of 'Dependent Origination' wisely accepted
in conservative Buddhism, especially in the Sarvastivada, is the
"inter connection according to causal laws of all the elements
co-operating in the formation of individual life." The
Consciousness-only school of Buddhist idealism
(Vijnaptimatrata) occasionally took it to mean "the process of

the appearing of all phenomena out of the Fundamental
consciousness (alayavinnana)."
In Mahayana, especially in Maddhyamika school and the
Kegon (Hua-Yen) school in China and Japan, Dependent
Origination meant, "inter-dependence of all phenomena in the
universe throughout the past the present, and the future" or
"relativity of things and ideas."
Mahayanist tendencies existed in the first century RC., at
the time the Pali canon was set down. Mahayana Buddhism
recognizes countless Buddhas and Bodhisattva. Mahayana
Buddhism can be designated as religion especially oriented to
the laity. Mahayana is more dynamic.
Theravada and Mahayana are subject to history which
brings modification, development, and accommodation to the
changing times.
History of Buddhism's Growth
Buddhism as a triple gem stands for Buddha as educating
human agency, Dhamma as remedy for social ills, evils and
wrong understanding and Sangha as nothing but purifying
collective force.
In India Kautsa and Brihaspati, a Guru of Charvaka
(Lokayata) denounced Vedism and Brahmanism. The six Indian
philosophical schools advocated against cruelty, caste, devas and
death (says N aren Bhattacharya). Buddha developed
Anatmavada2 and Buddhism made free access in religion for
the Shudras, the Untouchables in particular and all others in
general, and opposed priestcraft, caste, vedic ritual, and
sacrifice. Emperor Ashoka expelled 60,000 imposters lay hidden
in the Buddhist order in 246 RC. and purified the Sangha. 3
As a result Pushyamitra Brahman General usurped the
throne of the Buddhist Mauryan King, Brihdratha. In Pandu
Epic, Buddhist monuments are nicknamed as "edukas" in
contempt. Organized suppression of Buddhism was carried o:ut.
All Hindu books eulogize the Brahmins or priests and maintain
caste attitude 4. Madhavacharya (4th century) in his "Sankara
Vijaya" loudly cries that Buddhists have ridiculed Brahma, Veda
and sacrifices. 5 In 700 A.D. Kumaril Bhatta, a Bihari Brahmin

and the Guru of Sankara preached against the Buddhist
accusing Buddha in his book, Tatvavartika as "a disturber of
hereditary occupation and caste".6
The Untouchables did not join renaissance of Hinduism 7.
In the 11th century the world famous Nalanda University and
its colossal library as well as the Odantapuri University had
been damaged by the Muslim conqueror Bakhtiar Khilji, who
took lives of Buddhist monks alsos.
But in 1829 Brian Haughten Hogson discovered in Nepal,
vajrasuchi, the diamond needle, refuting Brahmanism in the
rational arguments of Ashvagosha. In 1873 a debate between
Buddhist monk M. Gunanada and Christian priest David Silva
influenced Olcott and Blavatsky to their conversion to
Buddhism. In 1884 C. Olcott (who presented 14 Fundamental
Principles of Buddhists approved by Buddhist Congress in 1891)
started schools for Pariahas and in association with
Dharmapala, established the Theosophical Society in Madras.
In the same year C. lyodhi Dass, a native doctor and scholar,
along with his companion Krishna Swamiar became Buddhist
in Sri Lanka, (His noted associates being P.L. Narasu,
Appadurai and Singaravelu) and established South Indian
Buddhist Association, edited Tamil Weekly, wrote his famous
book 'Buddharathu Adi Vedan', converted thousands of
Untouchables to Buddhism and (due to his request the
Government of Madras separately held census of Buddhists in
1910) and propagated Buddhism till his death in 1914. Narasu's
(d. 1934) famour book 'Essence of Buddhism' was recommended
highly by Dr. Ambedkar and Dharmapal. Appadurai was of
another revivalists, who spread message of Buddhism and
mission of Ambedkar in Karnataka State. His close associate
was Periyar E.V. Ramaswami, who started a Tamil Daily,
'Viduthalai' and rendered great service in spreading Buddhism
in South India.
Like Malas and Madigas in Telugu province, and Holeyas
in Karnataka, Pariyars are the untouchables of Tamil Districts.
They wear neither name of Vishnu nor ashes of Shiva.
Buddhism survived in the South India is evident from the book
of Mylai Seeni entitled "Bauddhamum Tamilum"9. Popularity

of Buddhism in the south was due to the services of Buddhist
monks, who ignored caste differences in dealing with all
people 10.
In the North India Anagarika Dharmapala was busy in
renovating Bodh Gaya temple. He founded the Mahabodhi
Society, started Maha Bodhi Journal, founded many colleges
and hospitals, held Vesak celebration for the first time in
modern India and introduced Pali studies in the University of
Calcutta with the help of Asutosh MukheIji.
Unlike Indian National Congress, Brahmo Samaj,
Prarthana Samaj and Arya Samaj the Booker T. Washington
of Maharashtra as Sayajiro Maharaja of Baroda called him and
popularly regarded as Mahatma Phooley (11th May 1828) and
his Satya Shodhak Samaj (founded in 1873 later led by Rao
Bahadur S.K. Bole) dealt with social reform in Maharashtra
after Namdeva, Mukunda Raj and Jnyanoba in the 13th
century and Chokhamela, N andanara and Ravidass in the 14th
century.
During the second half of the 17th century Untouchables
started revolts against Hinduism and, Buddhism posed
challenge to Hindu religion. The outcaste and tribal people
amouhted to about a sixth of the total population of India,
which shook the foundation of Hindu social order.
Ambedkar's Role in Buddhism
Dr. Ambedkar, the greatest crusader against caste system
was born on 14th April 1891, in 1920 he started Mook Nayak
fortnightly to awaken his masses. Sahu Maharaj of Kolhapur
reposed in him the full faith as the savior of the untouchables.
On his passing matriculation K.A. Keluskar presented to him
Buddha Charita. Ambedkar once said that he became a
Buddhist when he was a boy of sixteen ll . Loknath, an Italian
national, converted to Buddhism, viewed that had Dr.
Ambedkar adopted Buddhism earlier, partition of Burma from
India could not have taken place in 1936 12 • At Yeola Dr.
Ambedkar made firm decision to adopt Indian religion that
would give social and religious equality. His 21 years of quest
of religion disillusioned his mind about Sikkhism, Islam and

Christianity, which were all more or less coloured by Hindu social
inequality. Ambedkar adopted Buddhism in 1956 along with
millions of his followers and at the same time, 2500th years of
Buddhism was celebrated as Buddha Jayanti throughout India.
Since then revival of Buddhism began in Maharashtra and
other states of India fervently among the masses. Rahul
Sankrityayan said that "Ambedkar laid such a foundation of
Buddhism in India that nothing can shake it". He ranks
Ambedkar in the line of Vasishtha, a son of a prostitute and
Vedavyas, a son of Satyavati, daughter of fisherman, who were
endowed with great learning despite their birth in poor family,
unlike Jaimini and Patanj ali 13. Dr. Anand Kausalyayan, a
Buddhist monk, noted Hindi writer and world-renowned scholar
of Buddhism, who devoted his whole life (1905-1988) to the
service of Indian Buddhists and Ambedkar mission, once said -
"After my death my tomb should bear only a line that the man
buried under this tomb died while serving the mission of
Ambedkar. "14
Growth of Buddhist Movement
The present Dalit literature is a revolutionary trend in
Indian traditions of writings, which considers man as greater
than a god, a religion and a country aiming at destruction of
caste system and it revolves round its hero, Dr. Ambedkar l5 .
Since 1956 Buddhists from the Scheduled Caste community
have made their all round development in social, economic and
educational spheres. In Nagpur itself there are as many as
fifteen organizations that carry out functions of Ambedkar's
ideology l6. Concentrating only on Maharashtra, we find that
Mahars are 6.45%, non-Mahar SCs are 4.64% and registered
Buddhists are 6.39% of total population. Nine Districts of
Vidarbha and three of Marathwada only have more than
average of 6.39%, Akola being highest of percentage i.e.
16.79%. Mumbai has first highest number (5,57,089) and
Nagpur district second highest (4,93,208) number.
According to the 1961 census there were 3,2,50,227
Buddhists in India. In the census of 1981 but for SClBuddhist
social milieu the number of Buddhists should be more than 20
'million. Buddhists got organized under the world fellowship of

Buddhists, Buddhist councils, impact of Dr. Ambedkar, and
Buddhist publication and history of 2500 years of Buddhism.
In the year (1959) world's attention turned to Indo-China-Tibet
political problem in relation to Buddhism, when the Dalai Lama
left Tibet and took political asylum in India along with his
followers. Four years later political obstacles hindered Buddhist
developments as Buddhists in Vietnam were being persecuted
by the communists in the year 1963. Buddhist movement got
impetus by formation of Buddhist Union in Europe followed by
establishment of Buddhist Viharas in Toronto, Canada in 1978
by the Srilankan and Ambedkarite Buddhists there.
Ambedkarite Buddhist Society
Ambedkarite Buddhist society was developed under the
direction of Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan at Nagpur, India.
From the year 1985 to the present many developments of
Ambedkar movement and Ambedkar-oriented Buddhism took
place in India and abroad due to spread of Ambedkar's followers
across the world, international intellectuals' interest in the
studies and research on Ambedkar and growth in knowledge,
information, thought and philosophy of Dr. Ambedkar.
Presently the massive Stupa of Deeksha Bhoomi, Dragon
Temple at Kamptee and Nagaloka educational institutions and
hostels and Buddha Bhoomi in Nagpur-Kamptee are living
witnesses to the spirit of Ambedkarism in India.
Lastly but not in the least the Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
National Institute of Social Sciences at the birth place of
Ambedkar, Mhow has been functioning since 1988 for giving
impetus to the thought and philosophy of Ambedkar by its
research works and projects and M.Phil. and Ph.D. courses and
evaluation of its impact on the masses in general.
Ambedkar and His Contributions
1. Demographic Contribution: The first and foremost
contribution of Dr. Ambedkar is to establish Buddhist
demography in Indian society. According to the census of 1980
the Buddhist population in India is estimated to amount to
20,000,000. At the time of Ambedkar's birth in Mhow in 1891
Buddhists in India were a few and far between. Before the

conversion of Dr. Ambedkar and his followers to Buddhism in
1956 all Buddhist places of interest and history belonged to
the-south-east Asian countries-to Chinese, Japanese, Sri
Lankans as the Indian so believed, be it Nalanda site, statues
of the Buddha or Ajanta-Ellora caves of Maharashtra-but
conversion created new centres and more number of Buddhists
in India.
Three and half million Untouchables in India became
Buddhists since 1956, which in 1961 amounted to 3,250,227
(an increase of 1671 per cent) over the 1951 census. The
conversions centered in Maharashtra, where Buddhists in 1961
registered to the strength of 2,7,89,501 and the rest in Madhya
Pradesh (1,13,365 Buddhists), Uttar Pradesh (12,893
Buddhists) and Punjab (14,957 Buddhists), Mysore (8,000
increase) and Gujarat (3,000 increase). 2001 census recorded
the number of Buddhists in Maharashtra alone as 60 lakh or
six percent of the State's total population in contrast to .9 per
cent of the Indian population.
Thus the demographic contribution of Dr. Ambedkar in
creating number of Buddhist population in India is more than
that of South Asian counties like Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, and Central Asian Siberia or Southeast Asian
Cambodia, Laos, and Malaysia put together or more than that
of single Sri Lanka.
2. Knowledge: Social philosophy in India is classified into
classes of untouchability (400 A.D.17) and castes 18 with religion
and politics supporting this system perpetrated by a 2% of
Indian society on the masses amounting to 98%19. Dr.
Ambedkar struggled throughout his life against unjust features
of Hindu society and finally forced his surroundings, including
his own and collectivity to accede his way of life based on unity
of all nations, equality of all castes, colours, races, sexes and
fraternity among all world communities to give way to the new
order of righteousness.
His first encounter with Buddhism was when he happened
to read the Buddha's biography presented by his teacher Arjun
Krishnaji Keluskar on passing his matriculation examination
from Elphinstone High School, Mumbai in 1906.
76 Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and 'Iraditions
After his graduation in Mumbai he went to America and

England for his higher research studies at post-graduate level
with the help of Sayajirao Gaikwad's financial assistance from
1913 to 1917 and with his self-finance from 1920 to 1924 and
came back to India equipped with the degrees of M.A., M.sc.,
Ph.D., D.Sc., Bar-at-Law, and later honoured with D.Litt, and
L.L.D. degrees.
3. Development of Educational Institutions :
Educational development of Buddhist minority started by
Peoples' Education Society, (founded on 8th July 1945) Anand
Bhavan, D.N. Road, Mumbai and during post-Ambedkar era
is' as follows:
S.N. Schools Colleges Hostels
1. Siddharth Night High Siddhartha College of Arts, Siddhartha

School, Bauddha Bhavan, Science and Commerce, Vihara
Mumbai 1946 est. by PES Hostel,
Wadala
2. Siddharth English Medium Siddhartha College of Hostel,
School, Wadala Commerce and Economics, Mumbai
1953 est. by PES
3. Marathi Medium Secondary Siddhartha College of Hostel,
School, New Mumbai Law, 1956 ets. by PES Mahad
Campus
4. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Dr. Ambedkar College of Hostel,
Public School, New Commerce and Economics, Dapoli
Mumbai Campus Wadala 1972 est. by PES
5. Marathi Medium Primary Siddhartha College of Law, Hostel,
School Wadala, 1977 est. by PES Aurangabad
6. MiIind Multi Purpose High Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Hostel,
School, Aurangabad, 1955 Memorial Research Centre, Nanded
Rajgrih, Dadar est. by PES
7. PES English Medium Siddhartha College of Mass
Primary and Pre-Primary Communication, Anand
School, Aurangabad Bhavan est. by PES
8. Matoshri Ramabai Siddhartha Institute of Industry
Ambedkar High School, and Administration, Anand
New Aurangabad Bhavan, est. by PES
9. Nagsen High School, Junior College, New Mumbai
Nanded Campus
Social Message of Buddh ism 77
Schools Colleges Hostels

S.N.
10. Nagsen Vidhyalay, Nanded Junior College ·of Educati on, New
Mumba i Campus
11. Gautam Vidyalay, Milind Multi Facultie s College,
Pandha rpur (M.S.) Nagsen avana, Aurang abad, 1951
12. N agsen Vidyalay, Milind College of Science
Bangalo re Aurang abad, 1946
13. Dr. Babasah eb Ambedk ar
College of Arts and Comme rce,
Aurang abad, 1960
14. Milind College of Arts, 1963
15. Dr. Ambedk ar College of Law,

Aurang abad, 1968
16. PES College of Physica l
Educati on, Aurang abad
17. Buddhi st Centre, Aurang abad
4. Cons tituti on of India : The Pream ble of the

Const itution of India expres sed the spirit of Indian nation -
builde rs in these words ; 'We, the people of India, solem nly
resolv e to consti tute India into a sovere ign secula r social ist
repub lic to secure to its citizen s justic e-soc ial, econom ic,
political; liberty of though t, expression, work, faith, and worship;
equali ty of status and opport unity; assuri ng unity and integr ity
of nation and promo ting fratern ity among st all and enact, adopt
and give it to oursel ves hereby on this day of 29th Novem ber
1949- this Consti tution '.
5. Publi shing of Volum e on The Budd ha and His
Dham ma: This is a magnu m opus of Ambe dkar posthu mousl y
publis hed in 1957. It has eight books coveri ng 499 pages and
has been transl ated into region al and foreig n langua ges such
as Hindi, Punjab i, Marat hi, Sinhal i, Englis h and Kanna d etc.
Accor ding to Ambe dkar, Buddh a uphel d social issues of
ritual, text, caste, age, unifor m, wome n, shudra s, educat ion,
author ity, chang e, karma , soul, rebirth , enligh tenme nt and a
way of life based on prajna , samad hi and shila agains t lobha,
dosa and moha. Dham ma and saddh amma open doors of social,
educat ional, economic, spiritu al oppor tunitie s to all and break
all barrie rs betwe en man and woma n. Sangh a is the

transf ormed societ y for good, welfar e and happin ess of the
world.
Ambe dkar held that like Marxi sm Buddh ism is also based
on solid found ation of sufferi ng, includ ing exploi tation, killing ,
issues of Shudr as and women , mind, caste, govern ment, society,
ecology and so on. Indivi dual is not alone and inactiv e throug h
lives but has mind and associ ation, enviro nment to intera ct,
influe nce and get influe nced thereb y in dynam ic way in
contra st to predet ermin ed or lLtmaic way as some believ ed. He
believ ed that Buddh ism has more social signif icance and
philos ophy than any other creed or ideolo gy and religio us
instit ution s must have social respo nsibil ity unlike soul-
supers oul relatio nship. He also stress ed that transm ission of
karma among and betwe en sentie nt beings binds them with its
nature of whole some or unwho lesom e effects and harms them
as a result of pain and suffer ing or gives pleasu re in forms of
welfar e and happi ness in propo rtion to their numb er and
intens ity of action .
Buddh a word has to be both ration al and respon sible in that
he transm its compa ssion to save man in crises and prajna to
cut illusio n of supers tition and supern atural ism. Any religio n
which has weak found ation, weak princi ples and weak
preach ers is bound to fall and ruin. Sangh a or associ ation must
be a body of servin g monks rather than aimin g at person al
perfec tion. Laity should not make a monk a scapeg oat of their
inactiv ity or agency to carry their deficie ncy and bear their sin
to let them indulg e more in life with such charac ter and
hope
that other will take care of their defect s.
6. Natio nal Embl ems: Ambe dkar got the nation of India
accep ted the Buddh ist Ashok Chakr a laid on our countr y's
tricolo ur flag and Lion Capita l embos sed on Indian curren cy
as natio nal emble ms. On persu asion of Dr. Ambe dkar
Gover nment of India adopte d Saka Era which was starte d by
Kanis hka as nation al era on 22 nd March 1957 corres pondin g
to 1st Chait ra 1879.
Top of 150 ft. high centra l dome of Rasht rapati Bhava n
(Viceroy's House ) resem bled Sanch i Stupa . Medit ative Buddh a
statue stands in Durba r Hall used for cerem onies, award s and
credential presentation of ambassadors by President. Hindu

polity of monarchy was replaced by Buddhist Republic, Secular,
Welfare State.
7. Religious Institution : Bharatiya Bauddha
Mahasabha or Buddhist Society of India established by Dr.
Ambedkar in 1955 was succeeded by Yashwantrao Ambedkar
as President. He held 1st All India Buddhist Conference at
Chaitya Bhoomi in 1968. Later Mrs. Miratai Ambedkar became
its President and held 2nd All India Buddhist Conference in
1980 and 3rd All India Buddhist Delegates Conference took
place in Ambedkar Bhavan, New Delhi in 1989. Its branches
were opened in New Delhi, Lucknow, BSI, Baroda in Gujrat,
BSI, Siddharth Niwas, Hyderabad and BSI, Buddha Vihara,
Siddarth Nagar, Jallundur.
In number of Viharas established for Buddhist movement
Nagpur stands first and Delhi second.
Indian Buddhist societies were formed in the following
states of India:
STATE-WISE INDIAN BUDDHIST SOCIETIES
State Name of Buddhist Society
West Bengal Mahabodhi Buddhist Society
Bharatiya Buddhist Association
Indian Buddhist Council
Maharashtra Bharatiya Bauddha Maha Sabha, Dadar
Trilokya Baudha Maha Sangha Sahayaka
Gana, 1979
Arunachal Pradesh Lohit Bodhi Society
Assam All Assam Buddhist Association
International Brotherhood Mission
Jammu and Kashmir Ladakh Buddhist Association
Tripura All Tripura Rajya Buddhist Association
Punjab Punjab Bauddha Mahasabha, Jallundur
Sikkim Sikkim Buddhist Association
IvIizoram All Mizoram Buddhist Association
Meghalaya Meghalaya Buddhist Association
8. Social Application of Buddhism : Buddhism is a

remedial philosophy and public policy. It is inclusive of the merits
of communism also. It is rational or scientific mode of thinking
and living. It upholds the cause of the weakest members of
society and" make the stronger ones act in a responsible manner.
It brings individual transformation and collective revolution in
peaceful and ever rising height with worldly and spiritual
concerns. It holds equality of men and women and all sentient
beings as far as liberation permits and opposes Varnashrama
dharma and mechanical caste or duties based on insignificant
birth and not on merit of worth. It does not define religion as
duty or rule based on blind faith printed in any text or book
authority but treats it as principle of life to be tested by
experience and human sense. It is thus based on morality,
liberty of mind and its application in life.
Impermanence, Dissatisfaction and Unsubstantiality are
sources of its origin. Buddhism as Nirvan dharma meant that
all elements are unsubstantial or impersonal. As mental aspect
it implied that all composite existence is transient and
unsatisfactory. When a man sees them with application of mind
in the form of a diamond cutter or prajna his illusions are
dispelled and suffering is overcome. This is illustrated in Pali
dhammapada stanzas as: sabbe sankhara aniccati, sabbe
sankhara dukkhati, sabbe dhamma anattati yada pannaya
passati atha nibbindati dukkhe esa maggo visuddhiya. Thus,
comprehending this truth is the only way for purification of
beings.
The vajracchedika sutra as interpreted by sixth Chinese
patriarch, Hue N eng also stated that "If there were no sentient
beings there would be no dhamma and if there were no
preachers there would be no discourses."
Dr Ambedkar fully corroborated this view of Buddhism and
said that "Religion is for man, not man for religion". That is to
say that in the history of development of human beings man
preceded his actions and institutions in this world. He further
said that religion as a duty either breaks man or makes him to
break itself. This is the nature of mechanical authoritative rule
which has no force of natural principle of life.
What does a child inherit from his or her parents? According

to the Atmavadi religions child inherit only body, and soul is
his own contribution from his earlier lives or cycle of life. Karma
and soul are personal properties and belong to personal self
inseparably howsoever number of bodies it may undergo in its
endless cycle of birth. Each sentient being is distinct in this
possession.
Buddhism as non-self doctrine teaches transmission of both
mind and matter (Namarupa) from parents to their progeny in
family or from one social being to another social being in
community or associated mode oflife.
It is further enlightened that Paramita or perfection does
not imply personal attainment to the utmost degree but instead
it implies "to the opposite shore, i.e. opposite to this shore of
existence and non-existence like the up and down of the billowy
sea caused due to clinging to sense objects and such a state is
figuratively and metaphorically called 'this shore'; while a state
above existence and non-existence like smoothly running water,
caused by non-attachment is called 'opposite shore'. This is why
it is called Paramita2o• Thus, the evenness of water current in
the ocean is Paramita opposite to the violent ups and downs of
waves identified with Sansara or the world of becoming. If so
then Ambedkar preferred the serving men to perfect saints for
his social transformation project in the world.
Lobha, Dosa, Moha are Kleshas (defilements) of ordinary
human society opposed to the let go lobha, dosa, moha and
become bright mirror free from stains, wrong view and impurity
and purifying the whole social organization.
Sentient beings are better than saintly and godly beings,
who are incapable of prajna owing to their one-sided
development of bliss. They form the existence of all super
ideology and philosophy, which are made and unmade for them
alone. There are secular countries like India and democratic
countries like Britain, America, and theocratic states like
Malaysia, Pakistan and Buddhist nations like Thailand and Sri
Lanka, Tibet and Laos, and Japan etc. Amartya Sen rightly
pointed out that democracy has two aspects of deciding and
voting or westernized voting, and Asian deciding and voting
process. While the reasoning or deciding element is common to

all societies individually and distinctively today it was not like
this. Earlier in western legacy even in respect of voting
Athenian and Greece excluded women and slaves.
Comparatively the Indian, Iranian and Mrican counterparts of
Greece were excelling in methods of indigenous public reasoning
and voting both. Asoka and Akbar were model rulers,
secularists, and democrats while Rome was burning Bruno.
As for the treatment of different co-religionists it varied from
country to country. In England it is not easy to make visits to
the hospitals and prisons for other than the member of the
Church of England. In Nepal until 1951 to 1960 it was at the
cost of being boycotted and awarded corporal punishment for
talking against caste. It is impossible for Muslims to convert
themselves to any other religion in Islamic countries and in
America only Christian members get priority of concern. This
was revealed in public lecture by British born monk
Sangharakshita.
9. Conversion : Dr. Ambedkar therefore was attracted by
Buddhist societies and culture of utmost liberty and sharing
collectivity amidst diverse communities. He therefore
contributed to the social view of Buddhism. Buddha stands for
knower, Dhamma for dispelling wrong views and Sangha for
undertaking act of purity. As a social religion Buddhism as a
boat is a means to cross the sea of world safely. Use of Buddhism
for liberation of all is the proper application of it. It was a
mission of each one, teach one and transform individually and
collectively. It teaches unity of mankind and non-duality of
matter and mind irrespective of caste, creed, gender, colour,
nationality, place of birth, dress code and culture. Selfless
communities will lead society to be selfless association of
enlightened beings.
One of the reasons of fall of any religion or philosophy is
its weak foundation. Buddhism and Communism are based on
ground realities of suffering and exploitation as first truth to
reckon with. The purpose of religion or philosophy is to inspire
men to overcome suffering or exploitation, be it social, economic,
political, cultural, or educational. Method of Buddhism to
overcome problems is by love and persuasion while that of the

Communism is by force and extermination of the opponents.
Effect of suffering and exploitation is caused by self or private
property or ownership of mental and material world by private
limited greedy hands. Therefore state ownership of property or
collective sharing of world is proposed as remedy for overcoming
malady of existence. What stricter discipline can there be in
communes of socialism or Marxism than the Buddhist Order
norm of entitlement for its member of only eight things as
personal belongings such as three pieces of wear, a bowl for food,
a needle for sowing, a strainer for sieving, a razor for shaving
and a belt to fasten clothes on the waist.
According to Ambedkar it may be possible for society to shed
caste and class distinctions sometime but it is not probable for
the state to wither away as the Communism predicts, for to
regulate social life with either ethical dhamma without state
or governing state including legislature, executive, and
judiciary is inevitable for smooth functioning of life.
Dr. Ambedkar's life, mission and revolution should be made
known to everyone in time so that it will inspire humanity and
imprint- upon its heart the motto - Educate, Agitate and
Organize and vitalize its members to awaken to the greatest
path of truth (Cattari-ariya-saccani) and get disillusioned from
spiritualism which today has come to mean "just words. words
and more empty words"21 before it is 'just five minutes to
midnight and one must better change' to put it in Dr. Capra's
phrase.
10. Philosophy: Ambedkar's philosophy was a philosophy
of a religion that states that each religion has its own particular
philosophy distinct from other in both content of experience and
value of reasoning. Thus, we can get as many philosophies as
there are religions in the world and are faced with the problem
of choice of the best from among them all. So it is a matter of
choosing better one as one improves upon one's existing view
of religion and philosophy and settles with one that suits him
best.
The test of reality is definite as defined by Dinnaga and
Dharmakirti in their norm of arthakriyakaritva i.e. whatever
is causally efficient is real. For example, fire which does not

burn and does not cook is not real fire and the concept may be
extended to the extent of real nirvana also. A.J. Ayer had to
change his position from empiricism to logical positivism through
linguistic philosophy to value judgement.
Michael Bakunin (1814-1876) preceded Ambedkar to dislike
dictatorship even of the proletariats and peasants and Aquinas
detected in human nature moral base that defines good as an
act of individual perfection that everybody might cherish as
desirable state. Bistani Bayazid's (d. 874) words 'that a mystic
should be beyond good and evil' marked higher value over good
aspect.
The feminist existentialist Simon De Beauvoir (1908-1989)
propounded ethics of freedom. Heidegger said "Neither man nor
world are separate from each other, some of the beliefs express
our non-cognitive attitudes." This is to imply that we cannot
evaluate religion as true or of any definite value.
According to Mahayana (about 200 B.C.) and Tantrik
Buddhism 'having thought of enlightenment' and 'being
enlightened' are practically two different things or stages.
Bernard Bolzanio (1781-1848) was compelled to resign from
his position of professorship in Prague due to his rationalistic
tendencies in theology.
Bertrand Russell's philosophy of logical atomism (1956) and
E. Husserl's ideas in pure phenomenology are distinct from
Buddhist infinite sublime states of mind called Brahmaviharas.
Franz Brentano (1838-1917) defined mind as ability to refer
to something beyond itself. Martin Buber (1878-1965) was a
religious existentialist who highlighted man's two primary
attitudes and relations as I-Thou and I-It; the former in the
fields of psychotherapy, social philosophy and religion and the
latter as in impersonal kind of relationship and secondary
Ambedkar's reference to a philosophy of a religion is
applicable equally to the realm of economics. Nikolai Bukharin
1's (1888-1938) critique of marginal utility school may be studied
for comparison: He did not agree with Joseph Butler
(1692-1752) who viewed that God concerned with the affairs

of men.
Material Mode of Language compares right speech in
reducing the public speech to performance of its right kind of
role. Material object is what sensory experience can refer and
by means of which people communicate with each other and
that which can exist in space and time independently of any
conscious being.
Materialism is an ontological view asserting the primacy of
matter and putting thought or spirit in the secondary or
derivative status. This view was propounded by Charvakas in
India and by the earliest materialist school of atomism in the
Western Europe.
Dialectical materialism explains the natural process in terms
of dialectics such as unity and diversity of opposite forces,
transformation of quantity into quality and the law of negation
of negation i.e. shunyata of shunyata to put it in NagaIjuna's
terminology.
According to the Buddhist linguistics and dynamics "the
word can only express being and non-being. Buddha and
Nagarjuna and Chandrakirt expressed silence, quietude,
pacification or absolute truth as flying in the wind 'A flight,
without any support, in the wind of empty space'22.
Meaning is a coordination among speakers and listeners
within a speech community that organizes a communication
network by interlacing tokens, Acts of Interpretation, various
objects, events, thinkables by complex rules of formation and
their deconstructions that go for picking and doing our thought
in public discourses by their rules. Kausalyayan (1905-1988)
says that "Our relation to society is through speech or words
only".
The arguments for the philosophy of Mayavada (Advaita
or illusion) have been surreptitiously borrowed from Buddhist
philosopher NagaIjuna's Negation of Negation or Madhyamika.
11. Ethics: Generally people are prone to behave as giving
for giving, lying for lying, tit for tat or measure for measure.
Considering this as the general standard of behaviour at least
one Dhammapada gatha refers to higher conduct than the

above as given below:
akkodhena jine kodham : Win anger by calmness
asadhum sadhuna jine : Win roughness by gentility
jine kadariyam danena : Win stinginess by liberality and
saccenalikavadena : Win falsehood by truthfulness.
Surely it may be admitted by all that the standard of higher
conduct of man is expressed by the Buddhist Dhammapada
aphorism as mentioned above.
Take for example other virtue such as not to hurt or kill.
The historians will be one on the point that in the history of
religions and religious warfare for worldly affairs Buddhism is
conspicuous by the absence of bloodshed in its policy towards
others in the world and philosophy of life.
In the same way relatively speaking Buddhist ethics,
Buddhist logic, Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist language,
literature, aesthetics, art, architecture, painting and sculpture
and above all its culture and a way of life are comparativeiy
worth more than what other philosophies, religions and cultures
can offer to mankind.
The roots of all evil social deeds are three namely (1)
temptation (Lobha), (2) aversion (Dosa) and (3) ignorance
(Moha) to be counteracted by equally powerful wholesome social
roots of same number viz. (1) Non-greed (alobha), (2) Non-hate
(adosa) and (3) knowledge (amoha).
There is one universal moral order of righteousness and
unrighteousness that is developed, increased and consolidated
by number of additions or subtractions of moral-deeds to or frf)1!l
the existing changing status of morality in the world. The
human deeds are responsible for making the earth worth
heaven or hell by their respective dispositions. Ages of human
actions and reactions gave rise to a universal moral law in life
of man everywhere now as before. The mechanism of this rule
is explained in Buddhist philosophy by using the same
terminology as was introduced by the Buddha (563-483 B.C.)
originally under the caption of paticca-samuppada or the law
of social association. Dr. Ambedkar applied it to social sphere

also. According to this law past, present and future moments
of social life in particular and the whole life in general are
interdependent and inter-connected.
Ignorance means misapprehension. This brings disaster in
the words of Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and it brought hell, in
the words of Dr. M. Iqbal,to the class of Shudras in the Hindu
society. This misapprehension is not a simple thing but a
compound of ingredients of social avarice and social aversion
against certain sections of society and as such it causes various
concomitants of social consciousnesses such as volitional,
cognitional and emotional associations and that in turn bring
different sense organs, different looks and different objects
within its sphere and form social contact, social feeling, social
belongingness together and hold society together to elevate itself
and pass it on to future generation as it was to the former from
the history.
Right understanding gives it vision. Right thoughts make
it act accord~ngly. Right speech establishes communications
based on truth talks avoiding falsehood, slandering, harsh
words and pointless chattering. Right action leads to refrain
from harming any living and human beings, from taking
anything that is not given, from misusing senses of carnal
pleasure and from taking drugs or drinks that tend to cloud
the mind. Right living guarantees peaceful and creative life for
oneself as well as for others. Right effort maintains goodness
from within by striving to preserve or eliminate respectively
already existing virtues or vices in itself or by striving to
inculcate or shun in itself merits or demerits respectively from
without. Right mindfulness (samma sati) is to be aware at every
point of doing or undoing anything anywhere at any time.
Right concentration (samma samadhi) cultivates its mind to the
highest plane of sublimity.
Theories of Observation, Meaning and Understanding
Thoughts may be identified with and distinguished from the
thought as an act of mind positing a content and as a term used
for its articulation. This is distinct from theory which means
anything in the form of a statement or a set of statements
88 Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and 7raditions
offering an explanation of something. Philosophers like N.R.

Hanson, T. Kuhn, P. Feyerabend and K. Popper claimed that
those theoretical assumptions influence the facts that are
obtained in observation since they don't remain theory-neutral.
The view of science philosophers about the theory laden-ness
of observation called inductionist view is opposed by recent view
as it held observation as selective process which cannot operate
without certain theoretical assumptions regarding the law-like
behaviour of the object. So observation is always theory-laden.
Theoretical terms refer to unobservable events,
unobservable aspects or features of events such as electrons,
atoms, gene, electro-magnetic wave which cannot be pointed
to and there are no overt procedures for identifying their
referents. Experimental descriptions contain only terms that
refer to observable or operationally definable terms such as
pressure, magnetism, red, soft etc., that are immediately
intelligible independent of theories, or experimental procedure
of science, whose truth and falsity is epistemologically prior to
that of any theories; they can be confirmed as true or false
directly by carrying out experimental operations implicitly or
explicitly specified in the meanings of their component terms;
and they act as verifiers of the rest of scientific enterprise.
Leibnitz formulated the doctrine of theodicy. Actually the
term "Theodicy" was the French word meaning God's justice and
it is loosely used for "Philosophy of Religions" also, but it
addresses the problem of the evil in the main. He gave
justification of existence of evil in the world created by God,
the wholly Good is to promote moral values such as forbearance,
courage, kindness etc.
Donald Davidson discussed the theory of meaning or
understanding as leading one straight into a priori structure
of language as a system of rules with internal structure
presupposed to explain meaning and interpretation as
rationally constituted meaning representing structure of human
understanding to lay bare the common agreement conditions.
A theory of goals or ends is to be realized by human beings
and other living creatures as an expression of their essential
nature i.e. sociality and rationality as essential and not specific!

contingent/accidental characteristics such as height, colour of
hair and skin, weight etc.
Teleological ethical theory holds that an action is right if it
is conducive to the goal which is generally regarded as good.
If the action does not produce the effect it intends i.e. the
greatest balance of good over evil it is wrong action.
Philosophy's fate in religion as discussed by
Chattopadhyaya and Sankrityayan eclipsed as that of
Buddhism under counter-revolutionary forces in India's history.
For betterment of socio-economic, religious and political way
of life Ambedkar's threefold prescription is liberty, equality and
fraternity as principles of his philosophy; Buddha, Kabir and
Phule as human preceptors to be emulated in one's daily routine;
and educate, agitate and organize and self-respect, morality
and knowledge, etc., as deities to be internalized in living
moments.
Positive and Negative Trinity in Buddhism
Buddhism as the best method of living is based on trinity
of morality, mental development and correct understanding.
This positive trinity is derived from the Middle path or Noble
eightfold path prescribed as remedy for the ills of avarice,
aversion and ignorance, the negative trinity that is responsible
for suffering of all human beings and existence of world.
If we make negative the trinity of liberty, equality and
fraternity then we get bondage, inequality and fratricide that
stand for alternative negative trinity of avarice (bonded-ness),
aversion (fratricide) and ignorance (bondage); the positive
trinity of which is giving (alobha), loving (adosa) and
understanding (amoha), the antidote of negative things as
referred to above.
Giving is a morality in action, loving is cultivation of mind
and accumulation of all wholesome thoughts and understanding
is comprehension of mechanism of suffering as it really is and
correctly i.e. to see that evadhe anartha eka avidhyene kele such
an devastation could be visited on humanity by this one single
ignorance to cite the words of Phule.
The Buddhist perspective gleaned from the Vissuddhi

Magga of Buddhaghosha was "sile patitthaya naro sapanno
cittam pannanca bhavayam atapi nipako bhikkhu so imam
vijataye jatam" that be it any person, whether a layman or
recluse, whosoever is established in morality, cultivates mind
in good thoughts and correct understanding with perseverance
and valour, he only can disentangle this entanglement of
misapprehension or ignorance.
Ambedkar's perspective was more rational and empirical in
the sense that he identified the abstract mental perversities with
existing social elements and conflicts of communities of people
and practically prescribed for the downtrodden masses to come
up with their other counterparts in every dimension oflife with
the help of having such philosophy as will free them from
bondage by liberty of thought, from inequality by change and
from fratricidal caste-class relations by loving and
unifying attitude towards their fellow beings and other living
things.
12. Recognizing the Democratic Spirit of Buddhism :
Why the Indian Government is revitalizing the world Buddhist
holiest shrine of Bodhgaya? Does it recognize Buddhism's
contribution to the world culture or does it see economic gain of
tourism in it? Any way one looks at the issue Buddhism's
contribution to world psyche against international terrorism and
world's developing nations struggle for egalitarian order and
empowerment of the powerless and emancipation of the suffering
population cannot be denied.
The fact that the Mahabodhi temple complex was declared
a world heritage site in mid-2002 by UNESCO, and its
dedication ceremony taking place among dignitaries like the
Princess of Cambodia Norlam Bhopa Devi, her daughter
Princess Sita Nordom Wood, 55 Buddhist spiritual leaders, 400
other Buddhist figures and a horde of monks and Government
functionaries from 25 countries with the Union Minister for
Tourism and Culture, Jagmohan announcing the central aid
of Rs. 25 to 35 crores to improve the world heritage site, is
gratifying despite the damages done to the world heritage of
Bamiyan Buddha in Mghanistan and Dr. Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute, Poona, preceded by the Babri mosque

demolition in ancient Buddhist holy city, Saket, which is now
known as Ayodhya.
In India Buddhism is a patent caste annihilating philosophy
and democratic popular way of life forceful for establishment
of class-caste-Iess sovereign secular democratic republic and
nation-building with dignity of man, empowerment of marginal
person including child, egalitarian society, universal loving-
kindness to all beings, perfect understanding for new rational
ideology and ever refreshing change in every walk of life as
signified by Dhamma revolution initiated by modern India's
greatest builder Babasaheb Ambedkar when he adopted such
indigenous Buddhalogy along with lakhs of his other brethren
at ancient Naga capital Nagpur on 14th October 1956.
Buddhism as the light of Asia lit up Europe and America
also. It does not endorse the practice of racial discrimination that
existed between the Pro-Civil Rights Act of 1870 Blacks and pro-
White Ku Klux Klan organizations that ultimately resulted in
the murder of Martin Luther King Jr. by James Earl Ray, the
then newly released imprisoned convict on April 4, 1968 because
the former opposed the Vietnam war launched by the President
Lyndon Johnson and his Congress just as Nathuram Godse shot
dead Mahatma Gandhi in India on January 31, 1948 because
the latter followed the Buddhist principle of non-violence during
the Indian national upsurge against the British Raj.
Democratic spirit of Buddhism adopted in Vietnam or in Iran
should be heartening to every public power loving nation and
the superpower in particular needs to commend every successful
turn of democratic· governance taking place in any smaller
country of the world. But this goodness of rule instead of
becoming an enviable quality among member countries of the
world, has been an instrument of causing heartburn and bane
to greater and lesser powers respectively as expressed by the
top Iranian cleric in Tehran during the US election in 2004 in
a Friday prayer sermon in these words: "Each ballot cast in the
Islamic Republic's Parliament (Majlis) elections would be akin
to firing a bullet into the heart of Bush."
Culture of Buddhism in Contemporary Society,

Science has by its interesting discovery of atomic energy
proved the Buddha's law of change (Anicca-Dukkha-Anatta)
to be reality. Psychology has already proved the existence of
an unconscious mind and may well one day, through
age-regression experiments or by some new means of
psychoanalysis prove rebirth to be a reality. The scientific proof
of rebirth would remove the last stumbling block in the way of
the worldwide recognition of the teaching of the Buddha.
Buddhism shows itself ready and willing to carry on the twofold
dialogue with the secularized world and with other world
religions.
Gautama the Buddha is the voice of Asia, and the conscience
of the world. It was 600 years before the Christ. It was the
period of Mahavira and the Buddha in India, of Parmenides
and Empedocles in Greece, of Zarathustra in Iran and of Lao
Tzu and Confucius in China. Today we are living in the age of
science and technology. The world has undergone tremendous
change. Tension has been created in society. Population growth
is gigantic. The propagation of Buddhism was an attempt to
save society from superstition, crass materialism and ethical
skepticism. Buddhism has left its impact on all - culture,
civilizations, religion, ethics, logic, psychology, sociology, and
other disciplines. Its civilizing influences are discernible in the
remains found in the stately architecture, lovely sculpture,
magnificent paintings, superb embroidery and several arts and
crafts.
Its cultural impact is witnessed even today in the gentle
behaviour of its followers, in their deportment, dance, drama,
music, and poetry, in their social customs, superb hospitality,
in their work, play, festivals and celebrations and also in their
traditions, household furnishings and way of thinking as
expressed in their acts, their law and literature. Buddhists are
found habitually cheerful in disposition, gay in their living and
remarkably carefree in their lives, in pleasure dignified and in
adversity remarkably serene, they accept joy with gusto and
obstacles with fortitude and are ever charitable and attentive
to wholesome deeds with a view to facing the future with a
happy hope.
Not being riddled with caste complications, their social fabric

is without appellations of high or low, all beings accepted as
brothers and sisters, sharing each other's weal and woe. With
the ingrained spirit of socialism born of Buddhism, they
naturally share their possessions freely v,'ith the needy.
Moreover, their womenfolk enjoying freedom and equality with
their men-folk, are with an independent outlook, which makes
them outstanding in business and social life.
The contribution of Buddhism to art and architecture
throughout history is well evidenced by the impressive remains
on the sacred soils of Pagan and Prome in Burma, Borobudur
in Indonesia, Anuradhapura and other sites in Sri Lanka,
Angkor Wat in Cambodia and Nakorn Pathom in Thailand;
sweet Buddha images and other pieces of art discovered in
India, China, Japan and other parts of Asia. Also in central
America, and parts of Russia, they speak volumes in favour of
the world wide civilizing influence exercised by Buddhism in
the past.
Contribution of Buddhism to Society
The Panchashila is a great traditional contribution to the
well being of human family. The Panchasila of the Buddha
found expression in the political field as they were enunciated
by Nehru in Mrico-Asian conference at Bandung in Indonesia
in 1955-56 as: 1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial
integrity and sovereignty (panatipata veramani), 2. Mutual
non-aggression (adinnadana veramani), 3. Mutual non-
interference in each other's internal affairs
(kamesumicchachara veramani), 4. Equality and mutual
benefit (musavada veramani) and, 5. Peaceful co-existence
(suramerayamajjapamadatthana veramani).
Buddhism distinguished itself in making noteworthy
contributions to human well-being in the field (1) Promotion of
sanitary standards. It makes people live cleanly and well. (2)
Upholding of occasional continence or complete celebacy as
admirable virtue. This naturally helps to check population
explosion. (3) Universal literacy is a result of monastic education
universally offered. (4) Anti-social elements kept down because
of the practice of harmlessness. (5) Among Buddhists there is
no dowry system in vogue, and (6) They have high percentage

of literacy. Buddhist literary arts have surpassed in linguistic
variety, geographical extent, cultural influence unlike
Confucius, Hindu, Islamic and Taoist literature.
The world's oldest printed book, dated 11 May 868, is the
Vajracchedika-Sutra, on transcendental wisdom which is now
in the British museum, printed on paper, with a frontispiece,
showing the Buddha preaching to the aged Apostle Subhuti who
is kneeling on the ground. Buddhism gave birth to printing in
India.
Breakthrough in Knowledge of Unconscious
The breakthrough of unconscious discovered by Freud,
Adler, and Jung caused European thinkers to realize the import
of the Eastern meditation above all of Buddhist meditation.
Buddhism had developed a methodical mental discipline in
regions that had largely been hidden to European science. Not
only did this centuries old discipline lead to a deep knowledge
of the unconscious; it also served to exercise voluntary control
over the images, moods, passions, and intuitions of the
unconscious mind. Thus, a novel, attempt was made to
incorporate Eastern meditation into European psychotherapy.
Buddhist fm-ms 0f meditation have been direct incentives
to revive a long-dormant tradition of Christian meditation.
Jesuit father H.M. Enomiya Lassalle built a Christian Zen
centre in the mountains above Tokyo in 1970. In this and
similar ways, long-lost or underdeveloped elements of the
Christian tradition of prayer and piety received ne-,v inspiration
from Buddhism.
Philosopher Max Scheler in his essay "Man in the age of
compensation" highlighted the impact of Buddhism when he
wrote "Buddhism spread all over Europe by way of a
spontaneous appeal, a completely unorganised and adventitious
reception".
Buddhist literature and ideas have been accepted in the
West in inverse ratio to the degree of instinctive resistance with
which East Asian Buddhist countries met Christian missionaries.
Clement of Alexandria, the head of the Christian Catechetical
school in that city (Hellenistic countries) makes one mention of

the name of the Buddha. The life of Buddha is transformed in
the legends of Barlaam and Joasaph by John of Damascus.
Eastern Christian mysticism bears indirect Buddhist influence
on asceticism. Important Buddhist teachings reappear in the
guise of Christian parables, as for example, in the story of the
man, pursued by a tiger, who saves himself in a well shaft.
Islam regards Christians as the religion of Gog and Magog, who
are to arise and threaten Christianity at the time of its last
persecution. 23 The first European researchers presenting
scriptural sources of Buddhism to the West were Turnour and
Hodgson.
Political events among the Buddhist population of Asia, the
founding of new, independent Buddhist states in Southeast Asia
after World War II; the revival of Buddhism in India; the shift
of worldwide political interest to Buddhist countries of central
Asia hardly ever touched by global politics; the Chinese
occupation of Tibet and the Chinese threat to Buddhist Nepal
and Bhutan; the Vietnam war and the role of Buddhism in
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia; and the numerous exhibits of
Buddhist art - all these have done much to turn the world's eyes
towards Buddhism today.
Ethics of Buddhism
The Buddha reduced things, substances and souls, to forces,
movements, functions and processes, and adopted a dynamic
conception of reality. Buddha dealt only with the matters of
human conduct. The ethics of Buddhism stressed the universal
norms (Dharmas) which are constant and apply to everyone.
They should not conflict with human nature.
If a man could live a life of the right path, unvarying
patience and kindness to all, not binding his hearts to worldly
things that rise and, pass away - If one could still the cravings
for one's petty self, and endevour only to do good for others -
then for him the fountain of evil would vanish - then for him
the principle of individuality, that fundamental and worst
delusion of mankind, might be overcome. Only then is peace
of mind possible.
Towar d the natura l world the monks of the early Buddh ism
observ ed the attitud e of non-a ttachm ent. Devou t Buddh ists
practi ce good action s sponta neous ly. Buddh ism holds man
superi or to gods and demon s for Gods are too happy to feel a
dislike for condit ioned things , and they live much too long to
have any apprec iation of the teachi ng of imperm anence where as
anima ls, spirits , demon s, and the damne d lack suffici ent clarity
of mind to enable them to overco me their ignora nce. Theref ore,
Buddh as appea r as men, and the huma n state in genera l is
more favou rable than any other to the attain ment of
enligh tenme nt.
Buddh ism advise s man to let him cultiv ate towar ds the
whole world - above, below, around , a heart of love unstin ted,
unmix ed, with the sense of differi ng or opposi ng intere sts, let
a man maint ain this mindf ulness all the while he is awake ,
wheth er he be standi ng, walkin g, sitting , or lying down. This
state of heart is the befit in the world, (metta nca sabba lokasm in
manas am bhava ye aparim anan, uddha m adho ca tiriyan ca
asamb adham averam asapa ttam, tittha m caram nisinn ova
sayan o va yavat assa vigata middh u etam satim adhith eyya
brahm ameta m vihara m idham ahu- Karan iya Metta Sutta) .
If there is nothi ng in the world excep t bundl es of
consti tuent eleme nts instan taneou sly appea ring and perish ing
all the time, there is nothin g which friend liness and compa ssion
could work on - this way of medita tion abolis h our deep rooted
egoism in our own experi ence.
Becau se one identif ies onesel f with more and more living
things , the whole world and the indivi dual are intima tely and
indiss olubly linked .
Sabbe tassan ti danda ssa sabbe bhaya bti maccu no attana m
upama n katva na haney ya na ghatey ya - Do as you would be
done unto; neithe r kill nor cause to kill.24 The cudgel and the
sword he has laid aside, puttin g away the killing s of living
beings , and asham ed of rough ness, and full of mercy, he dwells
that have life. 25
compa ssiona te and kind to all creatu res
World Budd hist Leade rs and Ambe dkar
Ambe dkar (1891- 1956) who chang ed the life of six millio n
Untou chable people and transf ormed Indian social order by the
world's best known constitution of India is spectacular by his

absence in the list of world leaders.26 However, the world
Buddhist leaders of Asian origin owned him as their own and
Thich Nhat Hanh's interbeing and Vietnamese Buddhism agree
with social practice of Buddhism envisioned by Ambedkar. Dalai
Lama and Ambedkar belonged to the low status of social
sections. Sulak Sivraksha of Thailand founded International
Network of Engaged Buddhists that recognized Buddhism as
social vision as Dr. Ambedkar. Friends of Western Buddhist
Order founded by Sangharakshit followed the footprints of
Ambedkar in their daily social schedule. In addition there are
many internationally reputed scholars like Eleanor Zelliot,
Barbara Jo,:;hi, Gail Omvedt, Christopher Queen, Tartakhov
and so on who upheld the turning the wheel of Law by
Ambedkar as the new peaceful revolution.
Dr. Suriyabongse claimed that "The Buddha was the
greatest discoverer and scientist of all time." "Buddhism and
science are in complete agreement, and the more science one
learns, the better one will understand the Buddha Dharma."
G.P. Malalasekere maintained that the Buddha utilized
scientific methods for his own purposes but the ultimate
mysteries which he discovered were beyond the reach of any
purely scientific approach, nevertheless, in spite of the
differences in degree and emphasis, modern Buddhists have
been agreed in affirming the harmony between Buddhism and
Science and in making it a central element in their apologetic
within the Buddhist world and in the west.
D.C. Vijayavardhane emphasized the need for the rebirth
of Buddhism as a "social religion."
U Ba Swe, a prominent member of the Burmese cabinet
during 1950's maintained that Buddhism and Marxism, are the
same in concept'; Marxism provided a basis for a social
organization which was in accord with Buddhist teaching and
Buddhism completed the Marxist program.
Ledi Sayadaw, an eminent monk (1856 - 1923) encouraged
meditation in the face of 'Physical wear and tear is excessive,
the load on the mind is sometimes unbearable leading to mental
disturbances. This is the age of the psychopath and the

neurotic'.
Maha-Pandit R. Sankrityayana (1893-1958) married at the
age of nine, ran away at 14, studied Sanskrit, Vedic literature,
Arabic, Persian, Tibetan, Pali and Buddhism, Russian,
Japanese, made visits to Sri Lanka, England and Europe,
Japan, and Russia. His associates included Dharmanand
Kausambi and Stcherbatsky. In later life he married an
untouchable lady named Kamala. He resigned from Communist
party and said 'Buddhism has more freedom of thought than
it is found in Communism' (as reported by his collegue Anand
Kausalyayan).
Hungarian nationalist Sandor Csoma de Koros (1784-1842),
canonized.as Bodhisattva cSoma-Bosatsu by Japanese Shin sect
in Tokyo on February 22nd, 1933 set out on foot and reached
Tibet in 1823 after 5 years of traveling.
President Ikeda showed his concern for the eradication of
poverty in these words "The poor man will become happy, the
sick man well, the fool wise; unhappy life will be transformed
into a life of happiness".
Soka Gakkai was very social when he said "To call a life
happy and pleasant, when it is without clothing or money, with
sickness in the home and debt collectors at the door that is of
no use".
The Zen Yamada Mumon presented his feelings at
Bodhgaya temple in the form of a Waka Poem reading 'While
I peer up at the lofty Stupa, towering into the red dawn, softly
my tears fall'.
Chinese Buan-an (Anagarika Sthavira, Ashin Jinarakkhita
Thera) was the apostle of Buddhist revival of Indonesia. He
propagated Buddhism among Chinese and Indonesians.
The English Bhikkhu Sargharakshita (Lewis Lingwood) and
American Buddhist Subhadra (Dallan L. Steding), call for a
new kind of monk. 27
Shosan Suzuki, Zen master taught - you should attain to
Buddhahood through your work. There is no work that is not
a Buddhist exercise."
Soto Disciple Shosan Suzuki criticised meditation as idle

pastime.
PhrakhruAduu, the chief architect of the Dhamma Training
program sees his disciples to be "wayfarers for the help,
assistance, advantage, and happiness of the people of the world.
Buddhadasa, abbot of wat Manadhatu in Chaiya, Southern
Thailand has adopted expression and propagation of Buddhism
in a modern mass-media communication way.
Modern Buddhist scholars honour the Buddha as the first
humanist in the world.
Future Prospects and Role of Buddhism
The Zen Scholar Reiho Masunaga formulated the goal of
the new Buddhist movement in these terms: "The Buddhism of
the future will overcome the differences between man and
woman, wise and foolish, high and low, as well as national
barriers; it will be grounded, in a fJhilosophy which includes
the natural sciences, and in a humanism which liberates and
cultivates human nature; and it will be open to all the world.
Ambedkar warned the Asian countries to save their youth
from rolling into the communist fold as Buddhism is lasting and
superseding method of bringing social and economic revolution
peacefully and democratically. He wanted to reorganize the
institution of Buddhist Order by reforming traditional Bhikkhu
Sangha in accordance with contemporary needs of the world
oriented to social service and selfless aim. He felt like preaching
Dhamma as gospel of emancipation of mankind. He strived
through his Buddha and His Dhamma to have only one body
of texts containing essence of all Buddhist literature and truths.
He was after pursuit of Buddhism as a thing for daily practice
in one's life and application of the Buddha-word for social and
collective purposes.
Socio-Economic Equality Model of Ambedkar
The following pages discuss some salient points on ancient
society and state of affairs in those situations and how the
Tlorms of life called Panchasheel were challenged and how these
were dealt with in just and fraternal model of society put forth
by the Buddha and Babasaheb.
Vedic Society
Vedic Society was a tribal society and morally weak though
it was a later phase of the primitive tribal warfare stage. In
Rigveda there are hymns praying to Indra for helping the
supplicants to kill their enemies. For obtaining a son the Veda
prescribed a certain karmakand, which was criticized by the
opponents as false and it referred to the names of beings that
suggest that the origin of the Veda came later than them and
hence it lost its claim to the eternality. The characters of Yama
and Yami disclosed the incestuous appeal of a sister to her
brother. Drinking soma, an intoxicating stuff, was the habit of
the time as is evident in case of Rama and Sita also.
Madhuparka containing beef was later made a welcome drink
and hospitality for the guests at the Yajman's. Sacrifices took
toll of beings including human, crops, grass, and useful animal
products, extorted from the peasants and poor farmers of the
day, who were left with tears in their eyes while watching their
wealth of crop, vegetables, grass and animals being carried by
force for sacrificial purpose. Later Buddhist literature depicted
such cruelties in details. Naturally there was revolt among the
peasants, women, labourers and masses against such state of
affairs going on in the leisuredly class.
Panchasheel
Recluse culture led by Mahavira and Buddha was
especially oriented to withstand nasty developments by their
strong ethical social values of Ahimsa, Asteya, Satya,
Brahmacharya and Aparigraha, on the one hand and
abstaining from Panatipata, Adinnadana, Kamesumicchachara,
Musavada, and Suramerayamajjapamadatthana, on the other.
According to Buddhism the above five precepts are called
Panchasheel, which are routine rules of a lay Buddhist. When
one lay person desires to observe more principles on certain
special occasions of full moon day, Ashtami or new moon day
then they follow other rules such as (1) Not to eat food at odd
hours, (2) not to use high bed for rest, (3) not to use gold or
silver ornaments to decorate one's persona, (4) not to visit dance,
singing; drum-beating, or such other plays and displays for
public entertainment so that one's time is used for one's own
better purpose, (5) not to apply flower-garlands, scents, body

lotions, beautification to keep one's body natural, simple and
desirably maintained. In place of the third principle of not to
indulge in illegal sexual activity one is expected to observe
celibacy completely on such occasion and the rest of the rules
are as above, viz., not to harm any living things, not to take
anything that is not given by others or does not belong to
oneself, not to speak untrue, harsh, pointless and slandering
words, and not to take any drinks or drugs that tend to cloud
the mind.
Eightfold Path of Buddhism
These five principles of social life laid down in Buddhism
are called Sheela or morality and they form a part of the fourth
noble truth called Madhyama marg or Eightfold path. The other
parts of the path are Samadhi and Prajna. But the foundation
of purification of mind and society is this morality and it helps
to tread the other parts of the path smoothly after that. Right
speech is covered under the fourth precept of panchasheel and
right action is also covered under not to harm, not to steal, not
to indulge in sensual pleasure and not to take intoxicants. Right
livelihood means to select a career of life in which no being is
put at peril as a result of one's own livelihood and it gives peace
of mind and support one's life comfortably.
Right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration
comprise the Samadhi part of the path. By right effort is meant
a fourfold effort of removing and not again entertaining
unwholesome thought and to entertain and cultivate wholesome
thought. Right mindfulness means being aware of every
phenomenon of body, sensation, mind and thought. And right
concentration is one-pointedness of fivefold trance of vitarka,
Vichara, preeti, sukh and ekagrata. This helps man to settle
mind peacefully and apply it for higher purposes. The highest
aim being to develop insight or wisdom to cut superstition,
develop rationality and compassion.
Therefore the fmal part of the path is Prajna which is made
of right understanding and right thought. When one recognises
reality of change, suffering and unsubstantiality of existence
as it is then one understands truth correctly and then aspiring
for well-being, welfare and benefit of others and harbouring

such wholesome thoughts in one's own mind makes man
develop such insight as is useful for alltruistic mission and
action.
Thus, morality, meditation and ~isdom form the fourth
truth called nirvan to be lived here and now by every aspirant
according to Buddhism. The other truths are suffering and
origin of suffering and cessation of suffering. Suffering is
accompanied with change. So there is no fear of suffering
because though it is painful it is also changing by nature and
has no essence like soul or permanence. Origin of suffering is
tied up with cessation of suffering. Suffering originates at the
source of unsatisfactory conditions of life and suffering ceases
at the source of satisfactory conditions of life. Thus, right
understanding, meditation and morality create satisfactory
social conditions and give rise to peaceful, creative and
enlightening social constructions and end of suffering. These
four truths are thus one whole truth of nirvan of deliverence
from pain.
Dr. Ambedkar in his the Buddha and His Dhamma
beautifully depicted this truth. According to him, he liked
Buddhism because it has three things which other religions do
not possess, which are equality, compassion and Prajna.
Equality sets stage for friendship among all beings, compassion
makes one man run to help other man in crisis and prajna cuts
all superstition and brings in the dawn of enlightenment on
the face of society.
In fact, inequality is like a palm with five fingers put one
above the other in vertical position and Dr. Ambedkar's equality
model changed this palm in horizontal position in social context.
Justice is the name for trinity of the principles of liberty,
equality and fraternity, which Dr. Ambedkar desired for the
social, economic, and political way oflife called democracy.
Conclusion
Buddhist developments in Asia since 1950 are numerous,
unprecedented and effectiye. Dr. Ambedkar is reckoned as the
modern Indian true interpreter of Buddhism, which he reflected
in his own writings as well as in the legal and national

document of the constitution of India. He aspired the
establishment of the New World Order on the governing
principle of righteousness on the foundation of challenging
realities equally numerous, unprecedented and overwhelming.
Humanity torn between self-effacement and worldly disorder
needs to be awakened in ever widening circle with infinite
compassion, joy in others' happiness, love and tolerance of the
Buddha's paradigm.
Recommendations and Suggestions
1. For a Democratic world Government Buddhism in any
form can help any member nation of the world to
formulate its new policies so as to shape its developed
status not only in matter but in mind also.
2. All governments should establish a department of
Buddhist affairs and inter-faith dialogues.
3. International community may benefit from Buddhist
practices and principles in its secular, political, cultural
as well as spiritual life.
4. Buddha Zones may be established at the center of the
world, and at the two extremes of the Eastern and
Western Hemispheres.
5. With adoption of Buddhism as international
communities' way of life a safer, better and happier
world order may be established on this globe, where
every man, woman and child may find it worth living
and loving.
References
1. Baatr Dorj Bazarov, Buddhists in the USSR, New Delhi,
1979.
2. Stcherbatsky, Central Conception of Buddhism.
3. P.C. Ranasinghe, Buddha's Explanation of the Universe,
Ceylon, 1957, p. 383.
4. E.W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, 1920: P.L. Narasu,
ibid. Winternitz Maurice, ibid. Vol. I, Calcutta, 1927.
5. P. Laxmi Narasu, A Study of Caste, Madras, 1922, p. 15.

6. W.W. Hunter, Indian Empire, 1983: Narasu, A Study of
Caste.
7. WaIter Elliot, The Untouchables, New Delhi 1948 and the
Right Hand and Left Hand Castes (Jivanayakam) Nagercoil
1913, p. 22: The Balfour Encyclopaedia of India. Vo!. Ill,
p.422.
8. Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 202.
9. Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India,
Government Press, Madras, 1909, Vo!. VI, p. 103.
10. H. Dharmaratna, Buddhism in South India, Ceylon, 1968,
p.6.
11. Conversation with W. Rahula, World Buddhism, Ceylon,
1969.
12. Loknath's letter to Babasaheb Ambedkar in 1936.
13. Article of Sankrityayan about Ambedkar in Dharmayuga.
14. Kausalyayan's speech at Morris College, Nagpur in 1984.
15. Baburao Bagul, Dalit Sahitya, Ajache Krantivijnana, Nagpur,
1981.
16. P.N. Agalave, Modernisation in the social life of Buddhist
community in Nagpur city, a dissertation submitted for the
M.Phi!. Degree in Sociology to Nagpur University in 1984,
p.78.
17. B.R. Ambedkar, The Untouchables, Mumbai 1948: H.S. Olcott,
The Poor Pariah, Madras 1893: Nagendranath Bose, Modern
Buddhism and Its Followers in Orissa.
18. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, Vo!. IV, Oxford 1940,
p.230.
19. Leaflet issued by All India Canara Bank, SC and ST
Employees Union, Nagpur, 1986.
20. The Sutra of Hui Neng, Shanghai, November 21 s t, 1929,
p.30.
21. C.D. Naik, Buddhist Developments in East and West since
1950, New Delhi, 2005.
22. Vincente Fatone, The Philosophy of Nagarjuna, Delhi, 1st ed.
1981, rep. 1991, p. 151.
23. Revelation 19:20, Rev. 20:8.

24. Dhp. 129, 130.
25. DN. 11, 49, Vol. L, p. 62.
26. Whitaker's World 9{ Facts, New Delhi, 2007, pp. 150-151.
27. The Journal 'World Buddhism', Colombo, November 1961;
Young East, Tokyo, Summer 1962.
4
Sociological Aspects of Buddhism
C.D. Naik
"D.S. History, Population and Geography", includes sections

on civil rights, population and diversity and geography. This
collection includes our popular materials on the civil rights
movement in the United States, along with sections on the
rights of the disabled, women's rights, and Native Americans.
Such is the diversity of the said chapter.
From region to region, diversity in the social structure is
prominently seen. The north Indian social traditions and
customs are markedly different and so those ofthe eastern India
from those of other parts of the country. And here lies the
tantalizing element of mystery associated with India.
The gender inequality is a phenomenon causing concern in
the Indian society. One social infection is the Indian system of
caste-ism adhered to by all racial groups belonging to the Hindu
religion fold.
Ambedkar always thought of the role of caste system and
its ultimate demise was superior to any other. And as history
has shown, he was too optimistic in his predictions. However,
with respect to the discourse of nationalism, the chief
application of Ambedkar's political thought may be seen today
to reside in his reflections on social and distributive justice. The
subsequent course of Indian politics was to prove him correct;
it was not the nation state but its opposite, - irreconcilable
political clashes between religious communities and caste-wars
that would become the order of the day.
He brings the heavy artillery of neo-classical theory of
marginal utility developed by "Cournot, Gossen, Walras, Menger
and Jevons" to counter Russell's position that it is all due to
individual preference, and that people will give up things as
soon as they have too much of anything.
Reviving Cultural Heritage

Buddha said ''We shall be loving men amidst hating people".
There is need of loving culture in the spirit of the Moghul prince,
Dara Shikoh, who had translated the Upanishads, of Muslim
Pathan rulers of Bengal, who arranged translations of the
Sanskrit Mahabarata and Ramayana, and Buddhist scholars,
who revived literary tastes of our traditions. There is need of
being critic in the spirit of Pundit Javali, who not only not
treated Rama as God, but called his actions 'foolish'. There is
need of reviving cultural heritage of India after a Buddhist
emperor of India, Ashoka in the third century BCE, who laid
down the oldest rules for conducting debates and disputations
with the opponents being 'duly honoured in every way on all
occasions', continued by Mughal emperor Akbar in 1590 when
the Inquisition was in full swing in Europe.
Poverty and Social Atrocities Inter-relationship
The Indian scenario seems bleak as women and
downtrodden men became the victims of dominant interest.
During the year 2006-2007 Bindu Devi, Ramffajju Manjhi,
Bhola Chowdhary, and Sanoj Paswan in Bihar; Rakesh in
Haryana; Asha, Vidhya, Hakim Jatav, and Urmila in Madhya
Pradesh; Asha, Bhaiyalal, and Madhukar in Maharashtra; Bant
Singh in Punjab; a 14 year old mentally challenged girl in
Rajasthan; Anju, Mukesh, and Puja in Uttar Pradesh have been
victims of such heinous atrocities. Notwithstanding this ogre
under anti-social conditions and political safeguards.
Social atrocities caused economic degradations also. One of
the most serious causes of chronic poverty in India is social
discrimination between genders, ages, ethnicity, castes and
races, and impairments. The composition of chronic poor in
India consisted SCs and STs in agricultural and casual labour,
unskilled sector, food insecurity and access to assets. Even in
developed state such as Gujarat the very poor and poor in rural
and urban areas were estimated at 7 and 22, and 12 and 28
percentages of its population in 1993-94. Fortunately the India's
69 most backward districts (2003) did not include those in
Gujarat state. India's global position on human development is
Sociological Aspects of Buddhism 109
0.619, not better than 0.743 (of Sri lanka in 2005) and gender
development index is 0.600, worse than 0.525 (of Pakistan in
2005). However poverty ratio in Gujarat in 200-07 was 4, which
is below advanced state's percentage of poverty i.e., 9 (2004-
05). During the year 2006-07 the percentage of people living
below poverty line in India is 30 approximately. Poverty ratio
in rural-urban combined during rediscovery of poverty regime
in 2007 was 19.3 per cent. Out of 14 million Dalits only 1.1
million (8%) made use of reservation in 1991. Under
globalization privatization hit reservation policy, the sole
contributor to advancement of the Dalits.
Dalits Literacy Scenario
Dalits have long way to go in literacy and education in
comparison to the general literacy in terms of percentage as
shown in the following table:
Deooile Literacy Literacy Literacy percentage
percentage percentage gap between SC
gap between gap between S'lS and Non-
DalitSC/ST Dalit Females SC-S'lS
Males and and General
General Males Females
1951-61 12.66 9.66 16.48

1961-71 14.78 12.28 17.09
1971-81 18.24 16.85 12.83
1981-91 18.78 15.53 02.25
1991-01 18.53 NA NA
This is to be observed that on gender line literacy gap is

more than on caste line.
A century earlier the report of the Board of Education of
the Bombay Presidency for the year 1850-51 quoted the most
liberal and large-hearted administrator, Mr. Elphinstone's
observations, that "The missionaries find the lowest classes as
the best pupils ...they are not only the most despised, but among
the least numerous of the great division of society and if your
system of education first took root among them, we might find
ourselves at the head of a new class superior to the r~st in
useful knowledge, but hated and despised by the castes to

whom their new attainments would always induce to prefer
them."
Ambedkar's Gujarat Experience and Struggle
Gujarat is related to the life events of Dr. Ambedkar also.
He wrote pentalinguistic dictionary of Pali in Gujrati also
alongside Marathi, Hindi, and English. Pali worlds are similar
to Gujrati.
A 87 year old Gujrati from Visnagari town in Gujarat
namely Babaldas B: Chavda (94389 60548) narrated his life
story in the national seminar at our Institute in Mhow on last
October 2008 that his surname was Chava but he changed it
to Chavda to hide his identity of caste and confuse Indians to
wonder whether he belonged to higher Rajput caste or SC to
escape contempt of cac;;teist people in India today.
But even 97 years ago the event in Dr. Ambedkar's life was
testimony to such occurrence in Indian society. When the
graduate Ambedkar was appointed as a Deputy Collector at
Visnagar on 17th January 1913 by the Maharaja of Baroda
State Sayajirao Gaikawad the local orthodox Hindu ofVisnagar
boycotted him, knowing that Dr. Ambedkar belonged to the
Untouchable or downtrodden caste. He immediately left for
Baroda on the same day. He discussed the matter with
Maharaja, the latter then appointed him as an Lieutenant of
Baroda State. No sooner the fifteen days elapsed than he was
compelled to resign his such high offiCial post. The incident is
well known. He was looking for rented accommodation and no
one let him in the entire city because of his untouchability. So
he too showed him off as Parsi to accommodate him in Parsi
dharmashala in Vadodara but notwithstanding his disguise he
was detected who he was and maltreated by the so-called
advanced Parsi community members of the time so much so that
seated under the shade of a Banyan tree tears rolled on his
cheeks as he was not spared a single day to look for another
shelter. This took place in about 1917. How to expect change
in society when social consciousness is not prepared to change
and religion and philosophy preached vasudaiva kutumbakam
on paper and acted contrary in practice. All is Brahma in speech
but no one at par with Brahman in reality. There was cruel

perversion in ethics and philosophy that denied manhood to
Indian man and woman.
Pioneers of Buddhist Thinking
In the light of Buddha and Kabeer, Phule and Ranade, the
whole India and world are bound to reconsider Ambedkar's
slogan for Education, Agitation and Organization or'new world
order with great men as characters of sincerity, courage and
intellect.
Indian culture also includes famous names of Buddhist
thinkers such as N agarjuna, .Vasubandhu, Dignag,
Dharmakirti, Prajnakaragupta and Jnanashri who developed
Nyaya philosophy of the Brahmin Pundits Akshapada,
Satsyayan, Vachaspati, Udayanacharya, and Gangeshopa-
dhyaya. Parallel to Panini was Chandragomin and to
Katyayana and Patanjali were Jayaditya and Jinendrabuddhi
and Purushottamadasa and alike hailing from Buddhist
tradition during the Nalanda Age.
Lexicographer Amarsinha (Buddhist), Ayurvedic chemistry
master Nagarjuna were wellknown. Buddhist Kalidas and
Dandi were Ashvaghosha, and Chandragomin and Harsha.
The pioneers in Apabhramsha poetry impacting nirguna
poetical trend were the 84 siddhas. Places of sculptures such
as Sanchi, Bharhut, Gandhar, Mathura and Amravati
(Dhanyakataka) are world known; of painting Ajanta, Bagh,
Alchi and Sumra are unforgettable; and of architecture Ajanta,
Ellora, Karla and Bhaja are on the tongues of indigenous and
foreign admirers. Needless to stress that Ambedkar's philosophy
had roots in Buddhism and mission to make the Indians realize
that the social philosophy affirming a life of liberty, equality,
and fraternity cannot be found elsewhere but in Buddha's
Bharat alone.
Education as an Unequalizer
According to S.N. Chaudhary the, Professor of Rajiv
Gandhi Chair, Barkatullah University, Bhopal "Both the
concepts of education and the concept of social justice are time
specific and therefore dynamic. Both the Bhagavadita and the
Laws of Manu emphasized that it is better to perform one's own

duties poorly, even to die doing so, than to perform another's
well. And the proper discharge of the duties of one's station will
be rewarded in the next life. This practice was accepted and
encouraged by the existing value system and the dominant
public opinion. It is said that village was a self sufficient republic
and collectiveness was the main binding force which united and
sustained self sufficiency of Indian society. Education was an
inequalizer and those who possessed it has higher social status
and those who could not do so, had lower social status. Eklavya
during the Mahabharat and Shambuk during Ramayana
period were perceived as violators of normative structure of
Vasudaiva kutumbakama. Education during those days was not
only informal, privately managed but also directed to isolation
and exclusion for vast majority of Indian population especially
womeq., poor and all those who are today termed. as
marginaliz'ed population. During this modern period also
education could not include the excluded population. British
education created and contributed to the formation of India
within Bharat. Education could not contribute to social justice.
Seed of inequality was sown by Varna system and its doctrine
became big tree".
Education and Perception of industry as the temples of
modern India proved to be poles apart. If one organ of society
will go downward and the other in the opposite direction the
result will be chaos called "cultural lag" by Ogburn. Beteille
(1965) presented case of Shripuram village in which the
Brahmins (first recipient of modern education) did not even
recognize those of other castes in their count of the village's
population, and non-Brahmin caste Hindus likewise did not
count untouchables (p. 25). This situation is a routined affair
in Indian society.
Modern education eroded tribal culture who knew about
Mahatma Gandhi but not about their own social reformers from
their own locality. They know about modern cough syrup but
they did not know about herbs and medicinal plants meant for
removal of cough available in their own locality. Education

made them unfit to compete for education-based-new
occupation. Hence they are neither local nor global. Their
bride-price system was replaced by dowry system for educated
tribal youth. There is positive correlation between education and
dowry.
The new Education system eroded the feeling of collectivity.
Their leadership is from upper castes and existence of poverty,
illiteracy, hunger deaths, crime against women, poor quality
education in rural schools, casteism, regionalism, and corruption
are rife in their locality. New change agents are also suffering
from the trauma of "deresponsibilization" as their predecessors
suffered.
Modernization in India contributed to economic development
without social change. Y.B. Damle in one of his articles rightly
said that modern education is an effective instrument of
occupational and social mobility in individual's life. It is not an
effective instrument of social change in Indian society. Technical
education is global minus local. Its result in increase of middle
class in size and national economy created bottlenecks between
regions and communities. Students from marginalized group
entering more technical education suffered from cultural conflict
and unable to adjust they committed suicides as a Mumbai lIT
Dalit student is an example.
Because of coming of globalization gap between state and
society is further accelerated. In the past there was collective
voice of protest against state led oppression but increasing
individualism coupled with lust in favour of consumer culture
and modern life style have damaged the voice of collective
protest. Hence the situation compels to debate the thought and
philosophy of Ambedkar as an argumentative Indian to borrow
the phraseology of Professor Amartya Sen and instill hope
among the hopeless during this crisis.
5
Buddhist Tantra
C.D. Naik
Buddhist tantrism is a philosophy of cataphatic presentation

of Buddhist universal and sublimest spirit underlying the aim
of realizing ultimate truth of Buddhahood. It is a developed
system of texts woven round the actual meditational experiences
of adepts on the ladder of spiritual advancement from ephemeral
to ultimate nature of shunyata. Out of a variety of philosophical
and literal flavours of bookish and monkish conservatism only
Mantryana embraces larger humanity. Sahajayana and
Kalachakra systems of Buddhism, despite their occultism,
survive even today as the living testimonies of embodiments of
true dhamma transcending apophatic expression, mechanical
ritualism and conventional modalities. Hermeneutics of tantric
literature and culture warrant reinterpretation of lurking
suspicions cast on the completeness of Buddhahood hidden in
shocking but therapeutic treatments of the world ordinaire for
the attainment of tathata extraordinaire by tantric Buddhism.
It is to be noted that there is a lot of stuff and stamina within
bounds of tanrtic school to elevate all beings including the
despised and neglected masses of humanity to dignity and
. However, there is a detectable and irreconcilable difference
bring the diversified world systems under one integrated unity.
within and without the circle of Buddhist schools as to

similarities, contradictions and paradoxes in letter and spirit
and, aims and objectives.
What is shakti in relation to prajna', incarnation in relation
to emanation, god and atheism, self and anatta and sexuality
and sexless spirituality and such other enigmatic terms in
spiritual and philosophical domain will be the object of highlight
and detailed discussion of this study.
PHILOSOPHY OF BUDDHIST TANTRA

Symposium in Memory of Csoma de Koros - March 2009
Let me pay my homage to Alexander Csoma de Koros who
was declared as a Bodhisattva in Japan in 1933, who opened
the Heart of the West for the teachings of the Buddha. A
Hungarian memorial tablet placed on a monument erected by
the Asiatic Society of Bengal read: A poor lonely Hungarian,
without applause or money but inspired with enthusiasm sought
the Hungarian native country but in the end broke down under
the burden. Died in Darjeeling in 1842 his first authoritative
Tibetan Grammar and Tibetan-English Dictionary was
published in 1834. He was born on the 4th April, 1784 in Koros
village in Haromszek, in Transylvania, the part of Hungary in
poor family, he could get into secondary school when he was
15 years old. His two Tibetan lama-masters were: Sans-rgyas
Phun-chogs and Kun-dga-chos-Iegs. Mter his is named the
International Institute for Buddhology (Budapest), established
in 1956 by the Arya-Maitreya-Mandala, as well as the
Vietnamese Institute of Buddhology (Vung-tau) which works
since 1969. In the same year in Tehran a memorial tablet was
placed by the European Centre of the Arya-Maitreya-Mandal
to the wall of the "British Institute of Persian Studies" telling
Alexander Csoma de Koros (Korosi Csoma Sandor-Hungarian,
Phyi-glin-gi-grwa-pa-the foreign pupil: Csoma Bosatsu-
Japanese; Bo-tat Csoma-Vietnamese-Bodhisattva Csoma)
scholar of Tibetology resided in Tehran from October 14th 1820
to March 1st 1821.
Dr. Ernest Hetenyi in his (Alexander Csoma de Koros, the
Hungarian Bodhisattva) narrated, "The opening up of Tibetan
studies to Western scholars was largely due to the pioneering
works of Alexander Csoma de koros. Starting from his native
land on foot in search of the original homes of the Magyars,
thought to be somewhere in Central Asia, this remarkable
Hungarian eventually reached the western borderlands of Tibet
and devoted the rest or his life to the study of Tibetan language
and literature. 1
It is high time that in memory of such a towering genius
we have had this 6th International Czoma de Koros Symposium
Buddhism Tantra 117
on Hermeneutics of Tantrik Literature and Culture under the

Asiatic Society, Kolkata and Department of Indo-Tibetan
Studies, Visva-Bharati, Shantiniketan organized by Andrea
Loseries, Head of the Department and Convenor, lndo-Tibetan
Studies, Visva-Bharati at the Vidyasagar Hall, The Asiatic
Society, 1, Park Street, Kolkata-700 016 during 13-15 March
2009.
Disappearance of Buddhist Schools
E. Lamotte in History of Indian Buddhism 2 observed the
geographical locations of early and later history of Buddhism
as updet:
In the first two centuries C.E. ma.ny sects mingled and
coexisted peacefully in the same establishments such as
Dharmottariyas and Chaitikas in Junnar, Bhadrayaniyas and
Caitikas at Karle; Sarvastivadins and Sammatiyas at Sravasti;
Mahasanghikas, Bahusrutiyas, Aparasailas, Mahisasakas and
Tamrapaniyas in Nagarjunakonda. In the seventh century C.E.
the canopy of the Buddhism all over India was shared by four
sects: Sthaviravadi, Mahasanghikas, Sarvastivadins and
Sammatiyas. All of them disappeared together with the decline
of Buddhism in India after Muslim invasion in the twelveth
century C.E.
Philosophy of Tantra
Notwithstanding Schumann's observation that the
Tantrayana (2nd C. AD.) has added little to Buddhism
philosophically, there is a problem within and without Buddhist
schools of thought as to how the Absolute is connected with
ordinary.
Mantrayana
Popular mantrayana like Tantrayanic schools based on
Mahayana monism interprets the essential identity of all beings
with the absolute as cosmical interrelatedness. Nothing happens
without some effect on everything else. Sadhakas (adepts) can
unlock in himself the door to the absolute and thus to liberation
by Mantras (syllables or sentences without meaning).
Vajrayana applies the word vajra to enlightenment (insight

into emptiness or Buddha nature) and to absolute emptiness
itself, which is unshakable, indivisible, impenetrable,
incombustible and indestructible.
Liberation method of Vajrayana proceeds from conviction
that for each human being the world of phenomena unfolds
anew and individually from the absolute as its seed (bija) as
he, through his ignorance, imagines two things, namely
phenomenal world and deliverance, wherein reality there is only
one, namely absolute. Supramundane figures of Vajrayana are
subjective apparitions of the Absolute (emptiness, vajra,
liberation). Bodhisattva embodies absolute more purely than
human teacher who is affected by sansaric accidents.
Andrea Loseries Leick in her Tibetan Mahayoga Tantra an
ethno-historical study of skulls, bones and relics 3 , discussed
Tantrik Buddhism as esoteric system of Sadhna, promulgated
by a large number of siddhas from about 7th century onward
in eastern India where Tantrik teachers gave importance to
rituals (kriya), mystical diagrams (mandalas), magical spells
(mantras), vows (vratas) and austerities (niyamas) and
established identity of phenomenal world (sansara) with highest
truth or absolute, a new system that fascinated the popular
mind and had tremendous effect on the social and cultural life
of that time. Tantrik Buddhism in Tibet has assimilated and
integrated successfully many aspects of regional popular beliefs.
Tantric teachers, living on cremation grounds, taking outcaste
women as their tantric consorts, and using skulls as drinking
vessels, expressed with their behaviour their transcendence of
conventional action, and reactions against the unreasonablp-
aspects of the caste discrimination of Brahmanism at that time.
Crown of bone (skull) is worn by yogin for the adoration of
one's Guru and master and chosen divinity (Hevajra). Earings
are worn to indicate one's deafness to evil words spoken against
one's guru and vajradhara. The necklace suggests the mantra
intoned, the bracelets one's renunciation of harming living
beings, the girdle one's service of the Mudra (tantric consort).
The body should always be signed with these signs of the Five
Buddhism Tantra 119'
Buddhas4 • The Lord Vajrasattva, the one unity of all that is,
explained to N airatmya (The selfless Lady, name of the consort
of Hevajra) the different means used in the reciting of mantras.
For petrifying one uses beads of crystal, for subduing one uses
red sandalwood, for bewitching one uses wood of the soap-berry-
tree, for causing hatred one uses human bone. For driving away
one uses bone from a horse, for conjuring forth one uses the
bone of a Brahman, for causing rain one uses bone from an
elephant, for slaying the bone of a buffalo.
Kapalapa (the man with the skull), listed among the line
of 84 siddhas 5 was a man of low caste in the country of
Rajapuri, was initiated into the Mandala of Hevajra by
Krishnacari after death of his wife and five sons, practiced
developing stage (utpannakrama by visualizations, gradual
generations of deities and production of mandalas) and
perfecting stage (samopannakrama) by recitation of mantra,
breath control, manipulation of energies etc., and made six sets
of ornaments from the bones of his wife. This skull was the
developing stage, the fact that it was empty inside showed him
the perfecting stage. In nine years, he achieved the total
integration, and attained siddhi and spoke to his trainees: I
am the Yogin of the skull. The nature of all existing, things, I
know to be like this skull. So I behave according to my inner
power. He became famous as Guru Kapalapa and worked for
the benefit of living beings for five hundred years. Then with
a circle of six hundred, he went to the realm of the dakas (p.
23)6.
Meditation
Truly such logic as is impotent to make realization of
Absolute as emptiness is useless. This is also a demarcating line
between the Hindu self and Buddhist non-self as Stcherbatsky
and Maurya expressed in the following sentences: Aise tark se
kya labh haijo nirpeksha kajnana nahi kara sakta7. According
to AS. Maurya they do not admit change in consciousness, as
Yogacara believed which is an unbridgeable gulf between
Buddhism and Vedanta (p. 11). In Vedanta maya is developing
on Brahman but avidya in Vijnanavada is not depending on
any eternal substratum (p. 12).
A text on meditation written in Sri Lanka8 probably about

18th century showed how meditation at the time had
degenerated into a ritual of reciting formulas, burning candles,
etc. In psychology of Buddhist Meditation W. Rahula (1980: 273)
refers to gata-paccagata-vatta-on observance of going and
returning. According to this, the meditator took a vow never to
take a step without being mindful of his kammatthana-topic of
meditation. If he waUted a few steps without being mindful,
then he returned to the point where he forgot his topic of
meditation and walked' forward again with mindfulness. It is
almost as if he went back to pick up his topic of meditation
dropped on the ground at that point. This is more of a ritual
than a meditation.
Satipatthanasutta-sutta9 itself at the end without using the
term bhikkhu, simply says: "Whosoever (yo hi ko ci) should thus
cultivate (practice) these four applications of mindfulness-" One
of the two fruits (phala) is to be expected of him in this very life:
either perfect gnosis (anna, i.e. arahantaship) or, failing that, the
state of non-returner (anagamita, the third stage among the four
supramundane attainments). The commentary (MAl, p. 269)
further elaborates that thisyo hi ko ci (whosoever) means any
monk, nun, layman or laywoman.
Ashvaghosha, a contemporary of Kanishka (78-101 A.D)
composed Mahayana Shrodatapadashastra (Sangraha) tr. in
Chinese in 534 and later in 710 A.D. also gave first introduction
of Mahayana or Sunyavada. His Vajrasuchi (diamond needle)
vajrachedika or vajrasuchikopanishada was translated by B.H.
Hudson and edited later by L. Wilkinson in 1839 generalised
common human nature of both high and low castes in the
following stanza meaning truth, austerity, control and
compassion are characteristics of a Brahman and devoid of them
one is a low person as Chandal: satyam Brahma tapo brahma
cendriyanigrahah. Sarvabhute daya brahma etad
brahmanalakshanam. Satyam nasti tapo nasti nasti
cendriyanigraha, sarvabhute daya nasti etaccandala
laksanam 10 •
Mandala Unification
As described below in Fig. 1 an adept crosses path of
deliverance from circumference to the centre step by step.
Identity with Absolute be~omes part of Sadhaka's vital
Buddhism Tantra 121
co.nsciousness. In Vajrayana art Absolute and world of

phenomena are as male and female figures. Salvation seeker
first crosses fire circle (17) of purification then vajra circle (16)
of initiation. Lotus circle (15) symbolizes his spiritual rebirth.
Seeker now steps in the arched gate (12) where he accounts
for his synthesized conduct oflife to a Guardian (11) Bodisattva
(6-9) take burden off him if remnant of his impending karman
blocks his entering. Then the Transcending Buddhas (2-5)
welcome him into their paradises. Here he matures to
enlightenment, wisdom and realization of Absolute while being
undisturbed by wordly influences. Through the unionmystica
with Primeval Buddha (1) he finally attains Nirvana (p. 162).
-' 11'1\.6-9 H.
/ I (IV'>'
/ /F ~-<.nl1JfI"
./ /
'./ 1 PB,6-9 B,
/ 10VS*
//2-5BUd%
llga, 12gt.$
13sa, 14pa,#
Lotus circle
of spirituality
Vajra cirlce
of initiation
Fire circle of
Purification
10. Vajrabattra,
1. Primeval Buddha earthly Buddha
2. Aksobhya 11. Guardians
3. Ratnasambhava 12. Archedgate
4. Amitabha 13. Sanctum
5. Amoghasiddhi 14. Palace
6. Vagrapani 15. Lotus circle of spirituality
7. Ratnapani 16. Vijra circle of initiation
8. Avalokitesvara 17. Fire circle of purification
9. Visvapani Fig. 1
In Tantrayana cause begins from Primeval Buddha to the

circle of fire of purificiation and deliverance starts at the
circumference and ends in the centre. Dharmakaya equates
Primeval Buddha or Vajrasattva (10), Paradises are located in
colours-white, yellow, red and green corresponding to four
. directions--east, south, west and north presided over by the
122 Buddhism and I)alits : Social Philosophy and Traditions
Buddhas-Aksobhya (2), Ratnasambhava (3), Amitabha (4) and

Amoghasiddhi(5) with Biodhisattvas-Vajrapani (6), Ratnapani
(7), Avalokitesvara (8) and Visvapani (9). Earthly Buddhas are
represented by (10) while guardians by (11), archgate by (12)
and sanctum by (13) and palace by (14), lotus circle of spiritual
rebirth by (15), vajra circle of initiation by (16) and fire circle
of purification by (17). For deliverance the reverse of this order
is represented.
Buddhism in Tibet: History
Tibet had indigenous Phon beliefs. In the 11th C. in the
days of Atisha, Buddhism became national religion of Tibet, the
first great monarch of which was Sron-btsan-Sgam-Po (born
in 617 A.D.), a contemporary of Muhammad, the founder of
Islam, Emperor Harsha of Kanauj and Yuan Chwang of China.
Sron-btsan's fifth successor, Khri-Sron-Ide-btsan (755-797
A.DJ, inspite of Phon officials' opposition invited
Shantarakshita of Nalanda University, but his Paramita and
Pratityasamutpada teaching did not work there among the
people steeped in primitive sorcery and charlatanism.
Padmasambhava, apostle of Tantrism from Urgyen went to
Swat valley, Tibetans called him Guru Rimpoche, who defeated
Chinese armies as inscribed in Potala, founded Bsam-yas
monastery on the model ofUdyantapuri in Bihar. Santaraksita
translated Buddhist works in Ldandkar palace after his return
to Tibet where he died towards the end of 8th C.A.D. After him
Chinese monks propagated nihilistic traditions of Buddhist
philosophy, then the King invited Kamalasila from Nalanda to
defeat that nihilism and in turn was murdered by partisan of
Chinese philosopher.
Impressed by Sron-btsan's military prowess Bhrukuti,
daughter of Nepali King Amsuvarman and Wen-Ch'eng,
daughter of Chinese King Taitsung married Tibetan King Tho-
tho-ri's prince, who got from his wives gifts of images of
Akshobhya, Maitreya and Sakyamuni.
Ral-pa-chen (816-838), younger son of Khri-Sron-Ide-btsan
extended boundaries of his kingdom and the first history of
Tibet came to be written under his patronage. His elder brother
Glan-dar-ma forced monks to return to the life of laymen on
pain of banishment from the country after usurping throne
from his younger brother. Monk killed him by dart (841 A.D.).
Buddhism Tantra 123
West Tibet ruler invited Atisa alias Dipankar Srijnana of

Vikramasila: monastery in Bihar, who set Buddhism of Tibetan
there. Direct descendents of first historical ruler of Lhasa (Sron-
btsan-sgampo) still live in Ladakh. Atisa (Chandragarbha) was
born in Sahor in eastern India in 982 AD near Vikrama-vihara
in Bhagalpur. Buddhism came to Tibet at a time when India
was entering the age of Tantrism under Jnanapragha. In 1051
AD Atisa wrote commentary on Kalacakra.
Tantra school (secret teaching of Yoga) was founded by
Shubhakara who introduced it in China in 720 AD. It absorbed
prajna school and four Madhyamika treatises school also in it.
It is known as Shingon (Tantrik Buddhism) in Japan founded
by Kukai (Kobo Daishi) and built Koya-san monastery. It is
based on Mahavairocana-sutra and not degenerated as in India
and Tibet. Shingon means sacred formula and its recitation can
obtain enlightenment.
Vikramsila was a centre of Tantric learning which gradually
spread to Bengal, Assam and Orissa. The first European Sir
John Woodroffe under pseudonym Arthur Avalon rehabilitated
Hindu Tantras of Kundalini-yoga. Medieval siddhas were
propagators of tantric teachings of vajrayana. Tantric
Buddhism influenced Hinduism. Philological derivations and
iconographical comparisons, valuable though they may be in
other respects, are not adequate.
Prajna and Shakti
Bhattacharya in his Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism (p.
47) said, "The Buddhist Tantras in outward appearance
resemble the Hindu tantras to a marked degree but in reality
there is very little similarity between them, either in subject
matter or in philosophical doctrines inoolcated in them, or in
religious principles since the aims and objects of them are widely
different from each other.
Buddhist Tantrism is not Shaktism in a creative female
aspect of highest God (Shiva) or his emanations. Concept of
power forms focus of interest in Hindu tantras against the
central idea of prajna (knowledge, wisdom) in Tantric
Buddhism. Shakti is maya to the Buddhist, it is the very power
that creates illusion, from which only prajna can liberate
us-can make us perceive those powers, which have kept us

going in the rounds of life and death under their dominion and
Buddhist transforms them in fire of knowledge and let them
become forces of enlightenment which instead of creating
further differentiation, flow in the opposite direction, towards
union, towards wholeness, towards completeness.
Hindu tantra Kulacudamani asserted that "United with the
sakti be full of power". "From the union of Siva and Shakti the
world is created. Buddhist does not want creation and
unfoldment of the world, but coming back to the "Uncreated,
unformed" state of sunyata from which all creation proceeds,
or which is prior to and beyond all creations (if one may put
the inexpressible into human language).
In Buddhist tantrayana female represents all embracing
passive principle prajna or sunyata and male represents
dynamic active universal means or principle of love and
compassion, if both are united then Perfect Buddhahood is
attained. Where highest love and deepest knowledge unite
completeness is reestablished, and perfect enlightenment is
attained. Intellect without feeling, knowledge without love,
reason without compassion, female without male lead to pure
negation, to rigidity, to spiritual death, to mere vacuity, while
feeling without reason, love without knowledge (blind love),
compassion without understanding, male without female, lead
to confusion and dissolution; but where both are united, where
great synthesis of heart and head, feeling and intellect, highest
love and deepest knowledge, male and female principles have
taken place, completeness is attained unlike sakti as active
principle and Siva, as the passive principle, resting in its nature,
a pure state of divine consciousness or being in Hindu Tantra
(p. 319).
Active element, Upaya and passive prajna in Buddhism are
in contrast to active Sakti and passive Siva. Active knower
(Buddha) becomes one with passive knowledge (prajna) and
result in Mahasukha (highest indescribable happiness). Dyani
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as embodiments of active urge, all
embracing love and compassion (upaya) are represented by
common and universal symbol (male, sexless) in the embrace
of their respective prajna, symbolized by female deity (sexless),
embodiment of highest knowledge.
Buddhism Tantra 125
Concept of Sakti has no place in Buddhism. Just as

Theravadin would be shocked if the term anatta were turned
into atman to show that Buddhism was only a variation of
Brahmanism, even so Tibetan Buddhist would be shocked if the
term prajna were rendered into shakti. One cannot arbitrarily
transplant the termini of a theistic system into a non-theistic
system.
Concept of Absolute
Early Buddhism regarded Absolute unnecessary. Mahayana
saw Absolute in the emptiness of phenomenal entittes; identical
in their cores with the Absolute which projected historical
Buddha Gautama, unlike a natural man regarded by
Theravada.
For Mahayana Nirvana is becoming conscious of one's own
absoluteness (liberation) and is a stale of mental aloofness from,
but within, the world, Hinayana creates Nirvana, Mahayana
is in it (Buddhahood). Hinayana surmounts world Mahayana
helps it, the former thinks in terms of natural categories, the
latter relinguishes it to experience supernatural. One has
rational and the other meta-rational attitude.
Theravadi assumes a moral natural law which rules the
process ofkarman and rebirth neither created by a deity nor is
supervised by him and phenomenal world is without substance
and in a constant flux and individual existence is sorrowful
while the Mahayana considered person as a complex of soulless
factors and his sorrowful personality is therefore
extinguishable. Theravada deals with the Absolute as essence
of all Buddhas and beings.
The immaterial absolute is immanent in the everything
including earthly Buddhas (Mahasanghikas), heavenly
Buddhas (Sarvastivadins), and Human Buddhas (Theravadins)
ranking below dharma-principle or immaterial Absolute 'Common
to all Buddhas. Absolute is dharmakaya indestructible, timeless,
one essence in and behind all that was is and will be and bearer
and object of enlightenment (Buddhahood). It is called
dharmata (reality, dharmadhatu (core of reality), tathata
(thusness). Bhutatathata (thusness of existence),
svabhavakaya (essential-body), sunyata (emptiness) and
alayavijnana (base consciousnesS), Buddhata (Buddhaness),

Buddhasvabhava (Buddha nature) and tathagatagarbha
(matrix of perfect ones)}. There is only one dharmakaya. There
is contrast between Buddhas and phenomenal world. Absolute
reality is dharmakaya, besides which there is no other reality.
Absolute qualities are possessed by emptiness - non-
originated, independent of conditions, immutable, imperishable
and all-comprising, neither ineffective non-being nor
destructible being, neither obtainable nor abandonable, but
empirical by emptiness of wisdom of all things, a reason for
their impermanence unlike transitoriless' and sufferingless
paradise-emptiness is a sole reality in all appearances, is common
to both conditioned and non-conditioned dharmas.
Absolute feeling is evoked by prajnaparamita sutras which
affirm in relation to empirical existent and negate in comparison
with absolute and convey liberating knowledge of illusory and
absolute. Non-conditioned (asamskrita) dharmas too have no
self and are essentially empty. So are conditioned dharmas, this
illusoriness differentiated sansara from nirvana but not in
essence. Absolute is cognized by Bodhisattva in Abhimukhi
stage as he realizes emptiness of all beings and things. Wordly
beings and Buddhas, are opposites only superficially but in
essence are one with Absolute. Liberated one returns home to
the motionless ideal centre of the rotating wheel of sansara.
Nirvana is permanent (absolute) bliss, freedom and purity.
Hinayana and Mahayana Nirvana
Hinayana Nirvana is pre-mortal and post-mortal, while
Mahayana nirvana is active and static. A liberated one in active
nirvana is free from karmic bonds, from greed, hatred and
delusion and acts without getting reinvolved in sansara by his
action. Natural laws no longer bind him; he can appear at will
in any place and in any conceivable form.
In static (pratishthita) or post-mortal nirvana, the liberated
one loses all individuality at the moment of death and so
becomes untraceable in pure absolute ineffable. Emptiness is
absolute according to Madhyamaka system and Prajnaparamita
texts. Dharmas are neither isolated from each other nor in their
relation to absolute. For since. they are all empty and
Buddhism Tantra 127
undifferentiated, and their emptiness is the absolute, there is

no difference in essence between dharma phenomena and
absolute (nirvana). As the absolute, as being in itself and
immutable, it (base consciousness) is often compared with ocean.
People who seek nirvana because they are worried by the fear
of suffering which arises from the discrimination that sansara
is distinct from the absolute, do not know that samsara and
nirvana are identical. Attainment ofliberation, has as its cause
the perception of the absolute (base-consciousness), which is
immediate knowledge.
Though the other Buddhist authors like Har Dayal and
Dr. Medhankar upheld continuity of Buddhism from Theravada
to Mahayana Mr. G.C. Pande suggested discontinuity between
Theravada and Mahayana connection. He said, "Mahayana
grew up neither as a simple continuation of original Buddhism,
nor as a separate sect, nor even as a simple critique or
development of Hinayanic ideas; it grew up as a new
understanding of tradition with a new spiritual idealism"ll. This
is as if pratityasamutpada: doctrine is explained in terms of
evolution of Buddhist schools and philosophies across centuries.
However, it is to be noted that Abhidhamma literature is
formally included in the Tripitaka though it had been a later
incorporation into the canon and its contents vary for each of
the schools, and most of its texts were completed during a period
of compilation of Pali Canon at Alu-Vihara Council, Ceylon
between 250 BCE and 101-77 BCE12. From this it may be
surmised that whatAkira held as continuity ofTheravada and
Mahayana Buddhism is most likely.
Mahayana Sutras appeared over several centuries, from the
first century BCE, to the middle of the first millennium of the
common era13. Some 600 Mahayana sutras have survived to
the present day, either in Sanskrit or in Tibetan and Chinese
translation in Nepal, Tibet and Kashmir. To mention a few of
them those are 1. Saddharmapundarika (lotus of true law), 2.
Avatansaka sutra (flower ornament), 3. Maharatnakuta sutra
(treasury of Mahayana Gem). 4. Mahaprajnaparamita sutra
(large sutra on perfect wisdom). 5. Astasaharika prajnaparamita
(perf~ct wisdom in eight thousand slokas). 6. Heart sutra. 7.
Lankavatara sutra. 8. Vimalakirtinirdesh (teaching of

Vimalakirti), 9. Surangamasamadhisutra, 10. Amitabhavyuha
sutra. 11. Sukhavati vyuha sutra (Pure land), and 12. Sutras
of Vaipulya corpus (collection of nine sutras).
In Mahayana Bodhisattva doctrine is the cornerstone of
philosophical edifice, and is the main model of religious life.
Transcendental Bodhisattvas are Avalokiteshvara, Manjusri,
Kshitigabha, Mahasthamaprapta and Samantabhadra as most
important 14.
Schools of Mahayana Buddhism like Yogacara or
Vijnanavada school, Prasangika school, Zen school and Tantric
School experienced a profound influence of prajnaparamita
teachings 15.
Paramitas
Hirakawa Akira asserted that Kumarajiva. one of the most
important early translator of Indian texts into Chinese,
interpreted paramita as crossing over to the other shore of
enlightenment or nirvana from this shore of births and deaths
as is popular in China, Japan, Tibet, Taiwan, Korea and
Vietnam l6 .
Number of earliest Paramitas of Mahayana was four: dana,
sila, virya, and prajna as per the Sarvastivadins sources found
in Kashmir. A list of five Paramitas is mentioned in the Tibetan
literature as well as in the sadhammapundarika, a list of seven
preferred with seven bhumis but a list of six evolved through
selection by addition of kshanti (patience) and dhyana
(meditation).
Researches of E. Lamotte showed that on the ancient
sculptures at Bharahut stupa (second-first century BCE)
identified upto forty Jatakas in which the Bodhisattva in
human or animal form, incarnated sometimes as male or female
to perform virtu,)Us deeds of sila, kshanti, vigour (virya) and
dana.
The number of Paramitas increased from six to ten in
relation to ten bhumis instead of seven because of the third or
fourth century CF invention of the decimal system of
computation in the science of arithmetic. Sangharakshita named
Buddh ism Tantra 129
four supple menta ry param itas as upaya -kausa lya, pranid hana,
bala and jnana (knowledge)17.
Bodhi sattva in Sudur jaya (uncon querab le) and Abhim ukhi
(face to face) stages pays attent ion to practic e of perfec tion of
medit ation and stands face to face with reality of relatio nal
aspect of all eleme nts of existence: This being, that becomes:
this not becoming, that does not become: from the arising 18 of
this, that arises ; from the ceasin g of this, that ceases .
19
Dharm amegh a (clouds of doctrin e) fulfills Bodhi sattva vows •
To fulfil these perfec tions a Bodhi sattva requir es a lot more

span of time, for examp le, taking one asankh eyya (incalculable)
as unit of time he may take four asankh eyyas- kalpas , which
equal one mahak alpa or hundr ed thousa nd great aeons.
Patim okkha sutta was the oldest part of Pall Pitaka and two
complete Sansk rit versions of this text have been discovered and
publis hed2o• Numb er of patim okkha rules (227-311) shown in
the texts of variou s schools is differe nt Chine se Vinay a-Pila ka
contai ned two section s, one devote d to Mahay ana and one to
Hinay ana works . The latter compr ises five recens ions of whole
Vinay a of Sarvas tivadi ns, Mulas arvast ivadin s, Dharm agupta s,
Mahis asakas and Mahas anghik as.
Bhum i (perio d requir ed for the exerci se of a param ita)
referr ed to later develo pment (188 CE) than establ ishme nt of
six param itas (100 BCE-lOO CE). Were a Bodhi sattva to shed
one.si ngle drop of blood in a thousa nd births , he would shed
more blood than there is water in a thousa nd oceans in the
space of one param ita-bh umi. Were he, in the same numbe r of
births , to give a portio n of his flesh only the size of the Undu
flower, he would , in one bhumi , give more flesh22than there is
earth in a thous and world s like our own • Thus one
param itabhu mi is incalc ulable period of time.
There is difference in sequen ce and numbe r of param itas.
Accor ding to Ulrich Pagel the practi ce of Bodhi sattva path
procee ds on bodhic itta throug h benevo lence (maitr i), karun a,
mudit a, upeks ha, sangra havas tu (mean s of conversion), dana,
friend ly speech (priya vadita ), benev olent condu ct (artha carya) ,
and pursu it of comm on aim (sama nartha ta). But accord ing to
Har Dayal practi ce of 37 bodhi paksy a dharm as (4 fields of
130 Buddhism and Dalits : SoCial Philosophy and Traditions
mindfulness-smritiupasthanam, 4 right efforts-samyaka

prahana, 4 bases or wonder-working powers-riddhipads, 5 chief
categories (indriyas), 5 powers-balam, 7 factors of
enlightenment-bodhyangam and 8 noble eightfold path) is
included into the Bodhisattva path.
Vimalkirtinirdesh Sutra and Vimaladattaparipriccha Sutra
conjured up eight years old princess named Pure Giving
possessing eloquence by cultivating Samadhi of emptiness,
realization of non-arising of dharmas. Even operational space
of Bodhisattva is expansive to cover dwelling in emancipation
beyond comprehension employing their skill in expedient means
to teach and convert living beings by appearing in the guise of
devil kings (Vimalakirti 81). Upayakausalyaparivarta or the
paramita of ingenuity or skill in means sutra spoke of sometimes
practice of giving is performed to reinforce all the six perfections.
By ingenuity, to master all paramitas by mastering one
paramita because things are not different in nature, while
practicing Giving, one suppresses stinginess, develops strong
sense of renunciation and generosity; donor keeps precepts
(morality), gives with impartiality, kindness, compassion,
without hate or anger (patience), with full of vigour (virya),
his mind becomes tranquil (dhyana), not tied to notion of self,
recipient and gift (wisdom). Only the Bodhisattvas who have
attained the realization of non-arising of dharmas can be ready
to give their throne, wife and children, head, eyes and limbs 23 •
Realization or certainty of non-arisiqg of dharmas
(anutpadikadhammakshanti): according to' Madhyamika .
•
means Bodhisattva does not see that the least dharma arises
and ceases because that which is unarisen (anutpanna) is
unceasing (aniruddha), indestructible (aksaya), unstained
(viraja), undifferentiated (abhinna), abodeless (anayatana):
calm (santa), free from desire (vitaraga); inactive
(anabhisamskrita): wishless (apranihita); homeless (aniketa);
that which is homeless does not leave and does not arrive
(Surangamasamadiiisutra).
Hermeneutics
It is a science of resolving paradoxes and intriguing
esoterism to meaningful messages and practices in accordance
Buddhism Tantra 131
with philosophies of all schools of Buddhist tradition, whether

sautrantik, vaibhashika yogachara or madhyamika. One of the
hermeneutical tests laid in the Vinaya of Theravadi tradition
spoke about democratic way of settling dispute or controversy
by way of jnapti, anusravana and dharana, i.e. holding reading
of the bill presented in the assembly three times and confirming
the same by acceptance of the present members by remaining
in silence.
Dr. Ambedkar (1891-1956) revived Buddhism among the
despised masses of the society, drafted constitution of India
enforced since 1950, formulated on the foundation of Buddhist
Vinaya, and suggested two yardsticks of determining Buddha
Word. He said that the Buddha's statement ought to be rational
and logical in the first place, and Buddha's word is aimed at
man's welfare. So any other words and logic and philosophies
not serving these two tests cannot be held as Buddha vacana,
asserted Dr. Ambedkar in his last treatise24•
Six methodologies of hermeneutics (1) Yogacara, (2) Sakara
(3) Nirakara, (4) Madhyamika, (5) Sautrantic and (6)
Prasangika. Any interpretation must belong to, or be in
conformity with one of these. They are not teaching the same
thing found in the Hindu texts.
Independent origination itself is unproduced (anutpada).
Dharmakaya is emptiness. Rupakaya (sambhogakaya and
nirmanakaya) is independent origination. Nirmanakayas are
infinite emanated personalities (not incarnated) from causes and
conditions due to innate capacity (sambhogakaya) of
Dharmakaya. Enlightenment means realizing all the three
kayas.
DzogChen or Mahamudra is free from not only attachment
or aversion but also from the choice-less state. Sakya Pandit of
Sakya lineage declared indifferent or choice less state of
awarenes·s is a sure way to be reborn as an animal. Nyingma
and Kargyu schools, based in the vaste lineage (vaipulya) of
Asanga interpreted t~thagatagarbha as being present in full
form and recommended practice to gradually unveil its covering
veil. Sakyapas of profound tradition of N agarjuna interpreted
it only in seed form and recommended practice to develop it into
its full form.
Hindu unconditioned is atman, but DzogChen of Nyingma,

Mahamudra of Kargyu, Lamdre of Sakya, and unconditioned
of profound and vast tradition is anatma, tathagatagarbha,
Samantabhadra, emptiness, nisvabhavata. Conditioning is
conceptual (klesh) and emotional (jneya). Ignorance is
cognitive, miscognition and more conditioning. Sugatagarbha
exists epistemologically. Brahman exists ontologically (kutastha).
Buddhanature is mode of abiding, is not-abindingness (asthita).
Brahman is abiding (sthita).
Sunyata is phenomenon. Brahman is separate entity from
phenomenon. Sunyata is not a thing Brahman is something.
Sunyata is existing interdependently Brahman is existing
independently. Brahman is inherent (svabhavasiddha),
Sunyata is non-inherent (nisvabhavata). Brahman is
svalaksana siddha, sunyata is laksanata. Brahman is ultimate
existence (parmartha) sunyata is unfindability of such
parmartha sat anywhere.
Ilevajra Tantra recommended study of Vaibhasika,
Sautrantika, Yogacara and'Madhyamika for initiatioIl.
Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana held meditation
progresses from wisdom ,gained through hearing to ". odon;
gained through contemplation, to wisdom gained through
meditation (srutamayi, cintaramayi, bhavanamayi).
Valid lineage masters teach according to historically accepted
Buddhist hermeneutics and do not give their own personal self-
contradictory interpretations Asanga, Vasubandhu, Nagarjuna,
Chandrakirti, Shantidev, and Atisha believed that it is necessary
to acquire correct philosophies to be able to truly practice
Buddhist meditation properly.
According to N athan Katz there are text-based
hern.dneutics and adept-based hermeneutics. Jaques Derrida,
the most influential of nouvelles critiques, developed an
understanding oflanguages as laden with precritical ontological
commitments which lead the reader into the philosophic traps
of seeking an intentionality, an author, and a systematic
coherence which beeloud rather than elucidate the reading of
the text.
133
Buddh ism Tantra
In the Lanka vatara the Buddh a says (135-136) that there

are yanas only so long as the mind (citta) remai ns movin g
(prava rtaka) in sansar a, but, when it comes to know itself, all
thoug ht of a yana ceases . Steink ellner (453) discus sed the
Guhya samaj a's discer ning of four types of meani ng in texts: the
literal (aksar artha) , comm on (sama stanga ), hidden or pregn ant
(garbh i) and ultima te meani ng (kolika).
Omnic ient Buddh a is less a maste r of philos ophy than a
physic ian for unive rsal suffer ing; he impar ted to each the
teachi ng that he needed - Lamotte. Herme neutic s of adept rather
than the text is unders tood the basis for the entire lam rim
genre of Tibeta n literat ure Pro£ Waym an. Wisdo m in Tantri c
Buddh ism is often symbo lized by mothe r and metho d by father
- Tsong Kha Pa.
The dharm akaya promu lgates that which is ineffab le, the
sambh ogaka ya, the self-existing letters (Om Mani Padme Hum);
and the nirma nakay a, the innum erable sutras and tantra s-
Prof. Guent her. Accor ding to Tantri c Exege sis a fourth kaya
Svabh avikay a indica tes not a fourth but the interp enetra tion
of the three. Vajray ana is unders tood as simply a short way to
doing what takes aeons accord ing to the param itayan a
traditi ons.
Joinin g metho d and wisdom non-du alistic ally js the chief
meani ng of metho d and wisdom set forth. in Mantr a vehicl e.
Herme neutic was rather charac teristi c of later Buddh ism-Tsong
Kha Pa. Curre nt intere st in hemen eutics is focuse d prima rily
on more mode rn theor ies of interp retati on, a tradit ion
begin ning with the work of Friedr ich Schle ierma cher and
contin uing into the twent ieth centu ry with Bultm ann,
Heide gger, Gadam er, and Ricoeu r. Prof. David Tracy was a
leadin g formu lator of modem herme neutic al theory.
Nettip rakara na and Petko pades a forme d the two most
explic it treati ses on textua l interp retatio n for Thera vada.
Prajna param ita literat ure and Madhy amika school held that
one could chang e world ly merit s into supra mund ane
enligh tenme nt becau se all things , includ ing karma and its
effect , are empty of their own being . Yogac arins follow
Sandh inirmo cana, and asset 1st and 2nd wheel s of teachi ng
as interpretable (neyartha) and 3rd wheel definitive (nitartha).

Svatantrikas held 1st wheel interpretable and 2nd and 3rd
wheels both interpretable and definitive. Prasangikas find first
and third wheels interpretable and 2nd wheel definitive.
Yogacarins and Svatatrika hermeneutic stood behind text to
establish intention of Buddha in terms of his audience.
Prasangikas held more universal and disinterested approach in
judgement of time, place, audience, and mode of expression of
a text.
Buddhist tradition did not lack in hermeneutical
sophistication - Luis O.G'omez. In the Mahaparinirvana sutra
the Buddha described the Tathagata as a permanent, blissful
self, very pure, and without marks, thereby converting many
Thairthikas to the dharma, but says later that in reality there
is no self, thereby employing the principle of middle way to
eschew both eternalist and nihilist views. Teaching of
Tathagatagarbha is definitive because it refers in the end to
sunyata.
Role of philosophy in Buddhist thought is essentially
hermeneutical-Tsong Kha Pa. Hermeneutics has the double
function of reconciling apparent contradictions between the
Buddha's diverse statements while keeping alive the
methodologies of interpretation by which one can extract the
practical essence of each particular statement, Guhyasamaja
tradition is deeply involved in hermeneutical strategies-Vajra
Nagarjuaua and Vajra Chandrakirti. King of Tantras-
Guhyasamaja is a jewel casket of all sutras, has its meaning
sealed within by means of seven ornaments, which themselves
are subdivided into twenty eight principles. Tantric refinement
of Buddhist hermeneutics comletes the tradition in such a way
as to make comparison with modern disciplines of hermencutics
possible and fruitful- Prof. Thurman.
In general Chinese hermeneutical structure there is a
progression from naive cataphasis to radical apophasis to
perfected cataphasis. Tantra briefly passed through China and
was established as Shingon school in Japan. Kukai's Shingon
theory analyses language on three levels: cosmic, micro-cosmic .
and macrocosmic, the last is evaluated according to how well it
leads the listener to an awareness of cosmic and microcosmic-
Prof. Kasulis.
Buddhism Tantra 135
Three types of hermeneutics in Buddhist thought are (1)

classifying system (2) principles and strategies and (3) theory
of understanding- Prof. Alan Sponberg. Hermeneutieal
enterprise plays an important role in soteriology in the sense
that hermeneutics, as a theory of understanding, provides a
technique for divesting oneself of illusion.
Corresponding to the four alternative of being, non-being,
both, and neither, the Hinayana sutras teach being, the early
Mahayanika teaches non-being, the Tathagatagarbha teaches
both, and Lotus sutra (perfect teaching) teaches neither.
Buddhalogy can look forward to the discovery of resources that _
will contribute to the hermeneutical enterprise as a whole- Prof.
Tracy.
The whole universe in all its dimensions is entailed in every
moment of metaphysics. The Tiantai position insisted that some
evil and ignorance existed even in Buddha nature after Mencius
and later discovery found that non-Confucian thinkers
unanimously embraced Mencius' view of the original goodness
of human nature 25 .
Creator God
Even the concept and symbol of Adibuddha in later Buddhist
tantra has nothing to do with god creator. Adibuddha represents
universality, timelessness and completeness of enlightened mind.
It is the unfolding of man's true nature.
Adibuddha as universe or man is inadequate verbalization
of an all-comprehensive experience. Adibuddha is assuredly not
a god who plays dice with the world in order to pass away his
time, nor monotheism superimposed on atheist Buddhism. Such
notions are errors of professional semanticists. Buddhism has
no taste for theorization. It attempts to delve into the secret
depths of our inmost being and to make the hidden light shine
forth brilliantly.
Paradoxes
Confusion of Buddhist tantrism with shaktism prevented
clear understanding of Vajrayana and its symbolism,
iconography as well as in literature, especially that of the
siddhas who clothed the highest in the form of the lowest, the
most sacred in the form of the most ordinary, the transcendent

in the form of the most earthly, and deepest knowledge in the
form of the most grotesque paradoxes - a shock therapy
necessary on account of over-intellectualisation of religious and
philosophical life of those times.
Just as Buddha rebelled against narrow dogmatism of a
privileged priestly class, so did the siddhas rebel against self-
complacency of a sheltered monastic existence that had lost
contact with the realities of life. Their language was as
unconventional as their lives, and those who look their words
literally were -either misled into striving after magic powers and
worldly happiness or were repelled by what appeared to them
to be blasphemy as crude erotic cults of popular tantrism. From
these degenerated forms inferences about spiritual attitude of
Buddhist tantras cannot be correctly drawn.
Practices
Buddhist tantras cannot be fathomed theoretically, i.e.,
through comparisons er the study of ancient literature, but only
through practical experiences or actual contact with the still
existing tantric traditions and their contemplative methods, as
practiced in Tibet and Mangolia, as well as in certain schools
of Japan, like the Shingon and the Tendai.
In degenerated form of tantrism the female Bodhisattvas
figuring in the mandalas, like prajnaparamita and cundi, are
sexless beings from whom, quite in accordance with ancient
tradition, association of a sexual nature are strictly excluded.
Bengal, Nepal and Tibet schools emphasize polarity of male
and female principles26 as an idea of world-creating eroticism
of shaktism and represented sexless female symbols prajna
(wisdom), vidya (knowledge), or mudra (spiritual attitude of
unification, realization of shunyata). They represented sexless
female symbols.
Popularity of male and female principles recognized in
Vajrayana Tantra also is raised upon a plane which is as far
away from sphere of mere sexuality as mathematical
juxtaposition of positive and negative signs valid in both realms
of irrational values and rational or concrete concepts.
137
Buddh ism Tantra
Male and femal e dhyan i Budd has and Bodh isattv as'
yugan addha (union ) are indisso lubly associ ated with highes t
spiritu al reality in the proces s of enligh tenme nt compl etely
ignori ng realm of physic al sexual ity.
Figura l repres entatio ns of these symbols are not looked upon
as portra ying human beings , but as embod ying experi ences and
vision s of medit ation in which there is only super- indivi dual
polari ty ruling all menta l and physic al activit ies transc ended
only in ultima te state of integr ation, in realiza tion of shuny ata
(Maha mudra }-the great attitud e or great symbo l-<>ne , the
most impor tant system s of medita tion in Tibet.
Adva yavaj ra called Maha mudr a the etern al femal e
princip le, she is not nihsva bhava , she is free from vails coveri ng
cogniz able object , she shines forth like serene sky at noon
during autum n, is suppo rt of all success, is identi ty of sansa ra
and nirvan a, her body is compa ssion unrest ricted , is uniqu e in
Great Bliss (Maha sukhai karupa )27.
Anang avajra said that all wome n should be enjoye d by the
sadha ka in order to experi ence the Maha mudra meant higher
form of love canno t be restric ted to a single object and see all
female qualit ies as prajna -param ita or transc enden tal wisdom
or divine mother28.
Sadha ka who has sexual interc ourse with his mothe r, -his
sister, his daugh ter, and his sister' s daugh ter, will easily succee d
in his strivin g for ultima te goal (tatva- yoga). This is a very
parad oxical statem ent found in Anang avajra , Prajno paya-
vinisc haya siddhi , and also in Guhya Samaj a Tantra , which
means prajna symbolized by female princip le in associ ation with
active love of male (sadha ka) princi ple can becom e as compl ete
as ultima te goal29 .
Simila rly in Dham mapad a Verse nos. 294 and 295 we find
matar am pitara m hantv a rajano dveca khatti ye rattha m
sanuc aram hantv a anigh o yati brahm ano and matar am
pitara m hantv a rajano dveca sotthi ye veyya gghap ancam am
3o
hantv a anigho yati brahm an0 • In this contex t it may be
remem bered that mothe r stands for cravin g (tanha ), father for
ego (asmim ana), twin warrio r kings for twin errone ous views
of eterna lism (sassa ta) and annihi lationi sm (uccheda), kingdo m
(rattha) for five grasping groups of existence, and inhabitants

(anucara) for attachment, and Brahman for a liberated monk
or a bhikkhu, anigho for sinlessness, tiger (veyyaggha) for five
veils-lust (kamachanda), anger (vyapada), restlessness
(uddhacca-kukkuccha), laziness (thinamiddha) and wrong view
(miccha ditthi).
Kingdom also stands for twelve spheres of consciousness
(dvadasaayatanani)-eye-form, ear-sound, nose-odour, tongue-
taste: body-tactile; and mind-thought.
Thus, having pondered over the heart of Buddhist
philosophy it can easily be surmised that Ideals of sense-control
and renunciation cannot teach incest and licentiousness of
tantrism, nor matricide and patricide of Theravada. Yoga
terminology condoned that.
In Anangavajra paradox "All women in the world" signifies
all the elements representing the world including both female
and male principles. Four of the female principles form a special
group, representing the vital forces (Prana) of the Great
elements (Mahabhuta) earth, water, fire, air and their
corresponding psychic centres (cakra) or planes of consciousness
within human body. In each one of them union of male and
female principles must take place, before the fifth and highest
stage is reached.
Intercourse with mother (earth), sister (water), daughter
and sister's daughter (air) means fundamental qualities of
Mahabhutas. Seek union within oneself, said Tilopa in his
famous six Doctrines on which is based Kargyudpa school
method of yoga, which was practiced by Milarepa also.
The vital force of the five aggregates (skancfua) in its real
nature, pertaineth to the masculine aspect of the nerve (ida-
nadi). The vital force of the five elements (dhatu) in its real
nature, pertaineth to the feminine aspect of the Buddha
principle manifesting through the right psychic nerve (pingala-
nadi). As the vital force with these two aspects of it in union,
descended into the median nerve (sushumna) gradually there
cometh the realization and one attains the transcendental boon
of the great symbol (mahamudra}-the union of male and
female principles (as upaya and prajna) in the highest state of
Buddhahood 31 •
Buddhism Tantra 139
See the relationship of body and mind, of physical and

spiritual interaction in universal perspective, overcoming "I"
and "mine" and whole structure of egocentric feelings, opinions,
and prejudices which produce illusion of our separate
individuality and rise into the sphere of Buddhahood.
Thus, legitimate heirs of Vijnanavadins and Yogacarins
(Asanga) and logical and ultimate consequence of law of
dependent origination are Buddhist tantras. In four noble
truths and eightfold path there is nothing exclusively
Buddhistic, they are generalizations of framework of Buddha's
teachings. Fa~t of suffering and overcoming it by extinction of
desire based on egoism was common ground in Indian religious
thought and in other religions as welL
Goal and Way Out
As far as goal and way out of suffering is concerned
Buddhism as pointed out by Hans Wolfgang Schumann32 is as
shown in the table below:
S.N. Goal Way out Details of School/Branch /
founder and place of origin
1. Nibbana Removal of cause Arhatayana: {A} Original, India

563-483 BC: Pali
Arhatayana; {B} Theravada,
India ~CBC Ceylon, Burma,
Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Pali
Arhatayana: {Cl Mahasanghika,
India 4CBC, separate schools
Arhatayana: {D} Puggalavada,
India 3CBC,
Arhatayana: {E} Sarvastivada,
India 2 CBC, Vasubandhu 5th
CBC
2. Realization of Mahayana: {A} Wisdom School,
emptiness India, 1st CBC
of persons and
things by wisdom
Mahayana: {B} Madhyamika,
India, 2nd CAD, NagaIjuna
S.N. Goal Way out Details of School/Branch /

founder and place oforigin
Relief from Mahayana: {Cl Bodhisattva

unwholesome School, India, 1st CAD
karma through
Bodhisattva
Obtain rebirth in Mahayana: {DJ Faith, Japan,
paradise Honen-Shonin, 1133-1212,
through Amitabha Shinran Shonin, 1173-1265
Buddha
Mind only Mahayana: {E} Yogacara, India,
3/4th CAD, Maitreyanatha; 415th
CAD Asanga, Vasuhandhu,
India, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan,China,Japan
Mind only Mahayana: {F} Zen, 6CAD,
Bodhidharma, China, Vietnam,
Korea, Japan
3. Mantra and Mudra Tantrayana: {A} Mantrayana,
" enabling to identify India, Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan,
individual conscious- Mongolia, China, Korea
ness with base and Japan
consciousness
Identifying oneself Tantrayana: {B} Vajrayana, 8th
with Bodhisattva CAD, India, Tibet, Sikkim,
Bhutan, Mongolia, China, Korea
Twinning of sansara Tantrayana: {Cl Vajrayana, 3rd
and nirvana CAD, India, Tibet, Sikkim,
Bhutan, Mongolia
Union with Tantrayana: {D} Kalacakrayana,
Kalacakra 10th CAD. India, Tibet, Sikkim,
Buddha Bhutan, Mongolia.
Although goal is common to all branches of Buddhist schools

their methods vary from (1) removal of cause through emptiness
to (2) identity based on the philosophy of consciousness only.
Suffering was viewed during pre-Buddha period as caused,
uncaused through eternal or non-eternal principles. Buddha
assumed suffering and its cause with dynamic nature. Post-
Buddha development conceived and continued this changing
suffering for one and all through philosophies of Monism and
Buddhism Thntro 141
Absolute consciousness. From sixth century B.C. to lOth century

A.D. almost for 16 centuries sixteen schools of Buddhism
originating from India became recognized even outside.
Uniqueness of Buddhism
In what Buddhism distinguishes itself from all other
religions, in what its uniqueness consists, is dependent
origination (pratitya samutpada). It is more than a number of
rigidly fixed sequences of causes and effects, it is the idea that
nothing exists in itself or by itself as a separate unit, either in
time or in space, but is dependent on a variety of conditions
and related to everything else in the world. So there is no
independent existence; non-existence, being or not-being in life.
Sanyutta-nikaya, II, 17 is addressed to Kaccana by Buddha
declared addiction of dualism in the world, it is and it is not-
which are dependent constructions of their opposites-anatman.
Ashwajit summed up Buddha's teaching in a single
sentence in its most fundamental aspect pratityasamutpada.
When the wheel of law was set again by N agarjuna his
Mulamadhyamika-karika declared:
Anirodham anutpadam anucchedam ashasvatam,
anekartham ananartham anagamam anirgamam, yah
partitya samutpadam prapancopashamam shivam,
deshyamasa sambuddhastani· vande vadatam varam i.e.
without destruction and without origination, without being
cut off and without being eternal, neither being one thing,
nor different thing, neither coming nor going, he who can
thus teach the dependent origination, the blissful coming
to rest of all illusory unfoldment, before Him, the
Enlightened One, the best of all teachers, I reverently bow
down.
Prapanca (illusory unfoldment or differentiation or
conceptually differentiated reality) is maya or illusion caused
by blind world-creating-power (shakti}-leading deeper and
deeper into realms of becoming, of birth and death, of matter
and differentiation, unless countered or reversed by prajna or
wisdom born of profound insights into the nature of world,
ourselves and realization of enlightenment within our own
mind. Inner and outer worlds are same, threads of all forces
and events, of all forms of consciousness and all objects are
woven into one.
142 Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions
Tantra means weaving, interwovenness of things and

actions, interdependence of all that exists, continuity in
interaction of cause and effect, in traditional development,
which like a thread weaves its way through the fabric of history
and of individual lives. Tantra means tradition, spiritual
continuity or succession. Yantra, mantra and mudra; visible,
audible and touchable unite the powers of mind (citta), speech
(vak) and body (kaya) in order to realize the final state of
completeness and enlightenment. Principles precede literature.
So Hindu tantra connoting literature on tantra follows tantra
principles represented by Buddhist tantra works.
Ouru Gampopa applied the word tantra to represent a
philosophy comprehensive enough to embrace the whole of
knowledge, a system of meditation which will produce the power
of concentrating the mind upon anything whatsoever, and an
art of living which will enable one to utilize each activity of body,
speech, and mind as an aid on the path ofliberation33•
Cittamatra is different from alayavijnana which is like
flowing water, a constantly changing stream of consciousness.
Soteriologically pudgala-nairatmya (non-existence of self)
and dharma-nairatma (non-existence of things of the world) are
realized through removal of passion (kleshavarana) and
removal of veil that covers true knowledge (jneyavarana)
respectively for attainment of emancipation.
Parikalpita (illusory), paratantra (empirical) and
parinispanna (absolute) are three degrees of knowledge. lllusion
is false attribution of imaginary idea to an object, it exists only
in one's imagination and not outside. Empirical knowledge is
about an object, this is relative knowledge and it serves practical
purposes of life. Absolute knowledge is highest truth (tathata).
Illusory and empirical degrees of knowledge correspond to
relative truth (samvritti-satya) of the Madhyamika system;
which has two varieties of knowledge.
Yogacara (Asanga) attributed qualities to reality-pure
consciousness (vijnanamatra. Vasubandhu 4th C.A.D.) while
Madhyamika believed in shunyata.
Buddhism Tantra 143
Contemporary Value of Buddhism

Despite all the knowledge which we possess and can master
only with the help of machines, we cannot cope with ageing,
death and transitoriness. Our knowledge and actions move in
the realm of the finite. We cannot afford to disregard the infinite
as - it can be divined in the Teaching of a compassionate sage.
The wheel of the Dharma continues to turn, somewhat
creakingly, under the burden of our extrovert industrial
civilization and the impact of materialist doctrines, but it turns,
will it come to a standstill?
Future
The style of our life has changed in the last decades, but
the hearts of men have remained the same. No less strong than
the urge for prosperity, joy and progress, is the longing for a
glance beyond into the realm of the timeless. The heavier the
present weighs on man, the more he listens to the voice of
bilence. And hence there will always be at least a few who hear
and understand the word of the Buddha: about the way towards
the termination of suffering.
References
1. Internet surfing dated 9th March 2009.
2. E. Lamotte in History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origin
to the Shakya Era. tr. Sara Webb-Boin, 1988:347.
3. Andrea Loseries Leick, TIbetan Mahayoga Tantra an ethno-
historical study of skulls, bones and relics, B.R. Publishing
Corporation Delhi 2008: 20.33.158.
4. Snellgrove 1959:IT, ch X: 118.
5. Robinson 1979:222ff.
6. Nagarjuna, Uhapoha. Shantibhikshushastri. Lucknow
1955:55.
7. Dr. Ram Kumar Ram tr. F.T. Scherbatsky, Boudhha Nyaya,
Varanasi, 1969 p. 647.
8. Yogavacara's Manual ed. T.W.W. Rhys Davids, London 1896.
9.D IT. p. 314; MI, p. 62/Rahul p. 279.
10. Vajrasuchi, Shloka 22-27.
11. G.C. Pande, Studies in Mahayana, India, Central Institute
of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi, 1933:24.
12. Hirakawa Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, From

Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana, tr. Paul Groner, rep. Delhi,
Motilal Banarasidass, 1998:28.
13. Andrew Skilton, A Concise HiStory of Buddhism, Windhorse
Publication, Birmingham 1994:99.
14. Shambala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen: 24-25.
15. Edward Conze, Prajnaparamita Literature, Delhi 2000: 13.
16. William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous, A Dictionary of
Chinese Buddhist Terms, D.T. Suzuki, Studies in the
Lankavatara Sutra, Taipei 1991:366; Thich Nhat Hanh, The
Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, N.Y. 1988: 192.
17. Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, Pune 1996: 486-87.
18. Nanamoli and Bodhi, M. 655, Mass, 1995.
19. Avatamsaka sutra (the flower ornament scripture).
Maharatnakuta sutra (treasury of Mahayana sutra) Garma
CC Chang.
20. P.v. Bapat, 2500 Years of Buddhism, 1997:144.
21 Pachow W., Comparative Study of Pratimoksha, Delhi, 2000:
11-13.
22. R. Spence Hardy, R. A. Manual of Buddhism in its Modern
Development, New Delhi. Aryan Book International, 1996:
103.
23. Garma C.C. Chang, tr. On the Paramita of ingenuity, A
'/Teasury of Mahayana, Sutra, Delhi 2002:428-9: 265.
24. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, The Buddha and His Dhamma, Peoples'
Education Society, Mumbai, 1957, rep. 1997, pp. 350-351.
25. H.V. Guenther, Yuganadha. The Tantrik View of Life,
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series, Benaras 1952: 187.
26. H.V. Glasenapp, Die Entstehung des Vajrayana,
Zeitschr.d.deutch morgenland. Gesellschaft, Vol. 90, 560,
Leipzig, 1936.
27. Advayavajra caturmudra, yuganaddha, p. 34.
28. In prajnopaya-vinischaya-siddhi in two Vajrayana works,
Gaikwad Oriental Series, No. XLIv, p. 22.
29. Anangavajra, Prajnopaya-vinischaya siddhi, v. 25,
Yuganaddha, p. 106 and also in Guhya Samaja Tantra.
30. Bhadant Anand l(ausalyayan, Dhammapada. Pakinnavaggo
canto 21, Verses nos. 294 and 295, Nagpur 1938:70-71.
Buddhism Tantra 145
31. W.V. Evans-Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, p.

200ff.
32. Hans Wolfgang Schumann, Buddhism, An Outline of its
Teachings and Schools. USA 1973:179.
33. Guru Gampopa, The Twelve Indispensable Things, cf. Evans-
Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, p. 79.
Other Sources:
1. Lusthaus, Dan (1998), Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese, in E.
Craig ed. Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, London,
Routledge, retrieved May 25, 2005, from http://
www.rep.routledge.com/articie
2. Buddhist hermeneutics: A Conference report Donald S.
Lopez, Jr., Philosophy, East and West, Vol. 37, no. 1 (Jan
1987) pp. 71-83, copyright by University of Hawaii Press.
3. Prasanga and Deconstruction: Tibetan hermeneutics and the
Yana controversy, by Nathan Katz. Phi;,.sophy East and
West, Volume 34, no. 2, April 1984, p . .i.85-204, © by the
University of Hawai Press.
6
Buddhist Marriage and Method
C.D. Naik
Laws of Manu
For marriage you hear people fuss about keeping 7 or 8
gotras on the sides of both bride and bridegroom. This very
custom seems to have been adopted from Hindus and is traced
back to as old a source as the book of Laws of Manu. The Laws
of Manu, chapter iii, page 75, an English version by Buhler
state as:-
A damsel who is not a Saphind on the mother's side, nor
belongs to the same family on the father's side, is recommended
to twice born men for wedlock and conjugal union. Gotra means
blood-relationship between the families of bride and bridegroom
and is traceable. But these Gotras are different, for different
castes. In the case of Brahmanas, intermarriages between
families descended from the same Rishi and in the case of other
Aryans, between families bearing the same name, and thus
inter-marriages with the daughter of a paternal aunt or with
the paternal grandfather's sister's descendents, are forbidden.
Manusmriti further forbids as follows:-
A prudent man should not marry a maiden who has no
brother,-nor one whose father is not known, through fear lest
in the formet case she be made an appointed daughter and in
the latter lest he should commit sin.
Twice-born men are forbidden to marry a low caste woman.
For Shudras only Asura marriage rite is sanctioned. The son
of twice born by a Shudra wife receives no inheritance.
He who weds a Shudra woman becomes an outcaste. On
marrying a man of a higher caste a Kshatriya bride must take
hold of an arrow, a Vaishya bride of a goad, and a Shudra
female of the hem of the bridegroom's garment.
A Brahmana who takes a Shudra wife will sink into hell; if

he begets a child by her, he will lose a rank of a Brahman.
Out of the eight marriage rites, viz., (1) the rite of Brahma,
(2) that of Daiva, (3) of Rishis, (4) that of Prajapati (5) that of
the Asuras, (6) of the Gandharvas, (7) of the Rakshasas, and
(8) that of the Pishachas, the first six are lawful for a
Brahmana, the four last of Kshatriya. Asura marriage is
approved for a Vaishya and a Shudra.
It is declared that a Shudra woman alone can be the wife
of a Shudra, she and one of his own caste the wives of a
Vaishya, those two and one of the over caste the wives of a
Kshatriya and those three and one of his own caste the wives
of a Brahmana.
The gift of a daughter, after decking her with costly
garments and honoring her by presents of jewels to a man
learned in the Veda and of good conduct, is called the Brr! hma
rite.
The gift of a daughter who has been decked with
ornaments, to a priest who duly officiates at a sacrifice, cl llring
the course of its performance they call the Daiva rite.
When the father gives away his daughter according the
rule after receiving from the bridegroom, for the fulfillment of
the sacred law, a cow and bull, or two pairs, that is named the
Rishi or Arsha rite.
The gift of a daughter by her father after he has addressed
the couple with the text, 'May both of you perform together your
duties, and has shown honour to the bridegroom, is called in
the Smriti the Prajapatya rite .
. When the bridegroom receives the maiden, after having
given as much wealth as he can afford, the kinsmen and to
the brlile herself, according to his own will, that is called the
Ai:iura rite.
The voluntary union of a maiden and her lover one must
know to be a Gandharva rite, which springs from desire and
has sexual intercourse for its purpose. The forcible abduction
of a maiden from her home, while she cries out and weeps, after
her kinsmen have been slain or wounded and their houses
broken open is called the Rakshasa rite. "
Buddhist Marriage and Method 149
When a man by stealth seduces a girl who is sleeping,

intoxicated or disordered in intellect, that is the eight, the most
base and sinful rite of the Pishachas.
For the maiden to choose her husband there is no restriction
whatsoever but for man to pick up his choice of girl the
following ten families are avoidable. One which (1) neglects the
sacred rites, or in which (2) no male children are born, one in
which (3) the Veda is not studied, or the members of which have
(4) thick hair on the body, those which are (5) subject to
hemorrhoids, (6) phthisis, (7) weakness of digestion, (8)
epilepsy, or (9) white or black (10) leprosy.
Let him not marry a maiden with reddish hair, nor one who
has a redundant member nor one who is sickly, nor one either
with no hair or too much, nor one who is garrulous or has red
eyes, nor one named after a constellation, a tree or a river, nor
one bearing the name of a low caste, or of a mountain, nor one
named after a bird, a snake, or a slave, nor one whose name
inspires terror.
Let him marry a female free from bodily defects, who has
an agreeable name, the graceful gait of a Hansa or of an
elephant, a moderate quantity of hair on the body and on the
head, small teeth and soft limbs. No father must take even the
smallest gratuity for his daughter; for a man who through
avarice, takes a gratuity, is a seller of his offspring.
Manu also warns the couple for their conjugal union as
thus:-
Sixteen days and nights in each month, including four days
which differ from the rest and are censured by the virtuous,
are called the natural season of women. But among these the
first four, the eleventh and the thirteenth are declared to be
forbidden: the remaining nights are recommended.
On the even nights sons are conceived and daughters on
the uneven ones; hence a man whose desires to have sons
should approach his wife in due season on the even nights.
A male child is produced by a greater quality of male seed,
a female child by the prevalence of the female; if both are
equal, a hermaphrodite or a boy and a girl; if both are weak
or deficient in quantity, a failure of conception results.
He who avoids women on the six forbidden nights and on

eight others, is equal in chastity to a student, in whichever
order he may live.
Finally, a little bit of magical power is also put in the female
curse by the Manu in his statements.
The houses on which female relations, not being duly
honoured, pronounce a curse, perish completely, as if destroyed
by magic.
The Buddhist Marriage Rite
Legally, any marriage is a custom of the couple being
registered at the office or by court. But such bond of mere
legality might ignore the better ties of moral, religious and
social aspects of wedlock. It is therefore, a need of whatsoever
society to get the engaged couple wed through the solemnity
of their adopted way of custom and tradition, or a ceremony
which can make a wedding socially acceptable and certainly
complete.
The Principles of Marriage
According to the Buddhist tradition marriage is based on
following principles.
1. A Buddhist marriage is not supposed to have to indulge
in the sensuous temporary pleasures and make
unhealthy children;
2. But it is to live a moral life till the attainment of the
highest goal for the perfect happiness and purity.
We must understand this as the aim of the marriage and
accordingly the marriage parties may choose for the bride and
the bridegroom their life partner, suitable according to each
other's choice.
Besides other economical and personal causes for society to
bind itself to the fold of marriage, a person seeks love of morally
bound wedlock for the personal best and benefit.
As a family man or woman, too, a lay person can rise from
lower to the higher level of life and culture by efforts and
convictions. So through marriage too, as a means of mutual
love and understanding a married member unlike the
unmarried one can bring growth to the life of peace and

perfection.
Introduction of Bride and Bridegroom
Now we shall see what should be known by a person to
conducts this ceremony. Apart from the Buddhist monks, for this,
in some special cases, any person of principles, both male and
female are entitled to officiate the worldly marriage rite.
First of all, on the part of a person in charge of the affair
the introduction of the bride, bridegroom, their parents and
other close relations must be given to the people present at the
occasion. This may be introduced like this:-
The marriage of so and so, son of Mr. So and So with, such
and such is being duly carried out before all of you present here
at this certain place on the auspicious hour of this day.
For various reasons a marriage ceremony is held in the hall
in any premises, but an ideal place is the Buddhist monastery.
In the Buddhist society different countries have their different
ways of conducting the wedding ceremony, but most of the
Buddhists will still agree with a few central and commonly
related things of the ceremony, such as the taking of the
precepts and the recitation of the Mangala Sutra. Particularly,
in South-East Asian Buddhist countries the wedding ceremony
is not officiated by any of their spiritual monks, but they can
bless the couple at the Buddha Vihara when the latter visit
before or after their marriage.
In India things are changing since the Buddhist revival
movement has changed there from place to place and time to
time under different circumstances.
From the mass conversion ceremony of the Buddhist leader
of India, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar at the hands of the most
venerable Mahathero of Burma, Chandramani Jee, at the head
of the other multinational Buddhist monks at the Deeksha
ground, Nagpur, in India on 14th October 1956 up till now the
Buddhist devotees in the state of India prefer the Buddhist
monks, as and when available at their humble respectful
invitation to officiate the domestic ceremonies of mainly, birth,
marriage and death; and this custom has since been popular
among Indian Buddhists that need our sympathetic concern

and consideration.
To cope with the need of these demands Bhikkhus in India
are limited to obtain on such occasions even from distant places.
Therefore there is no other option for the marriage parties but
to depend on themselves to officiate the ceremony and conduct
its performance according to a guide to the Buddhist rite such
as this available at hand. This being a small attempt towards
that direction.
Ills of the Marriage Ritual
Marriage should not at all be a business or man made ritual
consuming enormous time, money and labour expenditure. It
should at its best be made to look more natural than mechanical
institution. Too much priesthood and ritual might make it
unnatural and still give no good impressions about the marriage
and ceremony. At the same time bad habits of lavishly spending
to drink and let drink beer or wine and the unfair conduct of
such improper things on the part of the marriage parties will
even worsen the whole of the ceremony being simple and pure.
In the Indian society, mostly among Punjabi people of the
labour class, who have adopted the Buddhist faith, abandoning
their old one, Hinduism, certain wrong views about the
marriage have got transferred into Buddhist ways.
For instance, they prefer pink or rosy colour suits for the
couple to other clothes at the marriage occasion. At this time
they also sing vulgar selfmade merry songs which are called
Sera. Some dance is also done to amuse them. One of their
superstitions about not using the white suit for the marriage
couple is that the corpses are wrapped with white cloth and
naturally they take it as a bad omen if white clothes are worn.
Now let us turn our attention.to the ills of the marriage
custom still prevalent in the modern Indian society compared
to other countries.
Not only in India, but in some other countries also people
have funny notions and equally funny practices are prevalent
among them. One of them is the offering of the bride by the
parents of the daughter either to the bridegroom or to the
parents of the groom as if she is being given as a charity like

the giving of a cow to a Brahmana priest, a me~ber of the
privileged class of the Hindu Society. Such a marriage cannot
surely be called a legitimate Buddhist marriage. In certain cases
some parents of both the bride and the groom waste a lot of
money on parties and even have to borrow on such occasions.
Such expenditure beyond one's means also cannot be
commended in a Buddhist ceremony.
In a lot of cases dowry is expected and given either to the
bridegroom or the parents of the bridegroom by the parents of
the bride. In quit~ a number of cases, certain girls remain
unmarried for a long time and if they get married the result is
their whole family gets bankrupt because of this ill. Such
practices also, therefore, must be denounced by Buddhists. In
some cases either from the point of views of the age of the bride
and the bride groom, or their size and the economic status of
their families unsuitable marriages also cannot be considered
as the ideal Buddhist marriage.
Considerations of castes, sub-caste-and colors while
arranging a marriage are meaningless in the Buddhist
wedding.
If a marriage is free from such elements then it should be
accepted as a marriage worth getting blessings from everyone.
THE BUDDmST CONVERSION BY
TAKING THE 22 VOWS
To make sure that the marriage is going to be just and
proper between the Buddhists, both the bride and the
bridegroom along with their parents and relations must
undertake to get initiated to the Buddhist faith by going as a
refuge to the Triple Gem and by uttering the 22 vows given
them by the great Buddhist leader Babasaheb Dr. Ambedkar
at the time of his converSLons to Buddhism. The taking of these
vows 1:>r the bride' and the bridegroom will convince them of
their disconnections with their rejected fold of caste Hindus
religion and of the adoption of Buddhism.
These vows are particularly known as the 22 vows but as
a matter of fact they are the essence of the Truth required by
a lay practitioner: These vows originally are in Marathi, the

provincial tongue of the state of Maharashtra, but their English
translation with a little verbal adjustment is given here as
under:-
THE TWENTY TWO VOWS
1. I shall not consider Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh as
gods, and nor shall I honour them.
2. I shall not consider Rama and Krishna as gods, and
nor shall I honour them.
3. I shall not believe in any gods and goddesses like
Gauri, Ganapati, etc. and nor shall I honour them.
4. I shall not believe in the god to have ever reborn as
incarnation.
5. I shall not agree with this belief that Lord Buddha
were an incarnation of Vishnu.
6. I shal not make oblation for deceased (Shradha), and
nor shall I perform the manes for Brahmanas (Pinda
Dana).
7. I shall not do anything which is opposite to the
Buddhist Law.
8. I shall not get Brahman to officiate at ceremonies.
9. I shall put my trust in this truth that all human beings
are equal.
10. I shall put my efforts in the establishment of equality.
11. I shall put my efforts to follow the Buddha's eight fold
path completely.
12. I shall fully put myself to adopt ten perfections
explained by Lord Buddha.
13. I shall have compassion on beings and shall keep them
with care.
14. I shall not take what is not given.
15. I shall not speak wrong words.
16. I shall not misuse the senses.
17. I shall not take anything that cause dullness to body
and cloud the mind.
18. I shall make efforts to mould my life according to three

Buddhist principles which are as wisdom, discipline
and compassion.
19. I do completely renounce myoid Hindu fold which is
harmful to progress between the human beings; and
accept the Dhamma of Lord Buddha.
20. I am fully convinced that the Dhamma of the Lord
Buddha alone is Sat Dhamma.
21. I believe that I am now reborn.
22. I hereby undertake this pledge-so that hereafter I shall
train myself according to the discipline of the Buddhist
Teaching.
CEREMONIAL EXERCISE
Whether marriage is inter-caste, inter-race, inter-class, or
an international marriage, it is not a point of quarrel for
Buddhists. But customarily, before the performance of the
wedding rite the five precepts or Panchashil are given to the
bride and the bridegroom. At the same time people attending
the ceremony can also repeat them along with the couple. While
the couple or the other people utter it with conviction they are
automatically initiated to Bu9-dhism. And now as such having
been converted to the Buddhist faith they now become entitled
to undergo the following exercise according to the instructions
given by the leader of ceremony as follows.
First of all the couple should bow down to the statue or
portrait of Bhagawan Buddha and/or Babasaheb
Dr. Ambedkar, which will be kept available in front of them_
They should also honor the venerable monks present at the
occasion by bending down reverentially before them. This action
may be repeated three times. Then the bride and the bridegroom
may stand to follow the verbal repetition of the verses of the
offerings to the Buddha. One can also sit down if it is more
convenient. The offering of the fresh flowers be made to the
Buddha form, incense be burnt and the candles lighted and
following verses of the reverence of the Lord Buddha must be
repeated.
Homage to One, the Blessed, Exalted and the perfectly

Awakened.
Twice, Homage to One, the Blessed, the Exalted and the
perfectly Awakened.
Thri~e, homage to One, the Blessed, the Exalted and the
perfectly Awakened.
I go to the Buddha as my Teacher.
I go to the Truth as my Teacher.
I go to the Brotherhood as my Teacher.
Twice, I go to the Buddha as my Teacher.
Twice, I go to the Truth as my Teacher.
Twice, I go to the Brotherhood as my Teacher.
Thrice, I go to the Buddha as my Teacher.
Thrice, I go to the Truth as my Teacher.
Thrice, I go to the Brotherhood as my Teacher.
I shall train to refrain from harming any living things.
I shall train to refrain from taking what is not given.
I shall train to refrain from misusing the senses.
I shall train to refrain from using any wrong words.
I shall train to refrain from clouding the mind by taking
drugs and drinks.
I offer the mass of flowers
That are fresh and hued,
Odorous and choice
To the Noble Sage
At his sacred lotus-feet.
I adore the Buddha with diverse flowers and aspire release
through this merit. Even as these flowers must fall and fade,
So do I think will my body pass away.
I offer incense, perfumed and fragrant, and adore the Lord
with Infinite excellence.
I revere Tathagata, the
Worthy of reverence
And offer substance compound and odorous.
I offer lights to the Enlightened One.
Who dispel the darkness of ignorance.
That light up the three worlds. ThR.t abolish the gloom
brightly shining.
Mter this salutation the bride and the bridegroom will sit
down at their appointed seats either on chair if provided, or on
the floor prepared. Usually the bride takes her seat at the left
side of the bridegroom. She should also be without purda or
veil over her face because Buddhist women will never use it
where it is not required. Let her make up and adorn herself
with cosmetics naturally. The bridegroom also should be seated
by his bride with decorum and in pleasing manners to look at.
Now the members of both the marriage parties of bride and
the bridegroom give rings, and the garlands for bride and the
bridegroom, and may provide necklace or other marriage items
also to the rite leader, who will perhaps have to conduct the
further wedding part with them as it will be explained below.
It will be helpful if the things spoken to instruct the couple
will be simultaneously explained. For its better understanding
a few more words 'Of notes on certain Pali words will be
naturally desirable. '
The word "Sadhu" for instance, is traditionally used to mean
very well or excellent. It is therefore frequently applied in Pali
recitation and usage for the same. Similarly when this word-
Sadhu-is said at the end of the Pali verses even at wedding
performance it is just a positive yes sense to what is being
spoken or done. It must then always be understood that it is
never a personal name of anybody indeed.
So when the item of garlanding of bride and .bridegroom
comes to be performed we may then use "sadhu."
At this time the officiating priest or person will chant a
particular Pali verse three times. Each time the word sadhu will
be repeated at its end. These verses can be chosen according to
the relevance of the event by the officiating person.
While chanting the verses one of the wedding garlands
should be given to the bride. Then at the first sadhu after the
158 Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and 'Iraditions
verse, the bride should put her garland around the bridegroom's
neck. Having done this she may show her respects towards him
as is proper. In Indian custom, in such case the bride seems to
have her forehead put on the bridegrooms feet but this kind of
deep reverence is out of thought in the West countries.
Then when the bridegroom gets ready with the other
garland held in his hand the second sadhu will follow after the
verse and then he will garland the bride as a token of his
acceptance to take her as the wife.
Now the garlanded bride and the bridegroom should be
made to stand up so that they are faced to each other. And then
people should be holding the paper colour flowers into their
hands and will be ready to shower those on both of them as
soon as the third sadhu with the last verse of the item is uttered.
After this moment all present may also clap in unison to mark
the wedding moment as a gesture of giving your congratulations
to the wedded persons.
After this the wedded couple should be made to sit down at
their respective seats. A sanctified cotton thread by the chanting
be given one end each to both of them. Who will then tie it for
each other on the right wrist of their right hands.
Similarly, the bridegroom can also give his necklace to the
bride after this.
Then at this special moment the wedded couple can even
present their gifts of love to each other and if they still have to
exchange the wedding rings they can now do that, too.
According to some foreign Buddhist tradition, particularly
in that of Burma the water is poured or sprinkled by the leafy
branch of a tree on their joined-together palms put one on the
top of the other. The jar of water and a tree branch are specially
provided on the altar of the stage for that purpose.
In addition to this, the apparatus of the ceremony will also
include a roll of cotton white table cloth, Buddha images,
offerings, flowers, garlands, incense, candles and so many other
things as will be suggested by the concerned member.
Now on reaching of this stage the couple may. ask for the
advice from the Buddhist monks for they will give a short
sermon on their demand for their benefit, knowledge and

guidance in connection with their life as householder.
Nevertheless, the relevant sermons given by the Buddha
to lay people at such occasion may be related for the couple to
be benefited. Then the officiating person should explain to the
couple their functions and duties.
Buddhist girls in particular may, therefore, take more
interest in knowing the informative tales on certain ideal
characters found in the Buddhist history. These stories through
the blameless married life of the Buddhist girls reveal what we
call the essential meaning of the Buddhist teaching for a lay
person.
The Lord Buddha had given sermons in plenty of such
occasions for the ordinary people. Most of those sermons are
chanted as Pali-sutras by the Buddhist monks at special
occasions. One of such more popular sutras is known as "the
Sigalovada Sutra" which ever so beautifully explained the
family person and gave most useful advice on proper
relationship between wife and husband, teacher and pupil,
preceptor and disciple and so on in contrast with ten quarters.
Another important sutra from lay point of view is called the
Mahamangala Sutra."
Other Sutras like Jayamangal Atthagatha, etc, may also be
recited to produce good effects.
The following verses may be changed at the time of uttering
"Sadhu" while the bride and the bridegroom adorn each other
with the garlands.
May what you wish and desire soon be successful. May all
your aspirations be fulfilled like the full moon day.
This gatha or verse should be repeated each time before the
use of the three "sadhus."
Mter this the duties of the bride anl the bridegroom must
be made clearly known to them and they are given here as
these.
The bride will say:
Towards my husband I undertake to perform my household
duties effici.mtly, be hospitable to my in-laws and friends of my
husband, be faithful, protect and invest our earnings, discharge

my responsibilities lovingly and conscientiously.
The bridegroom will say:
Towards my wife I undertake to love and respect her, be
kind and considerate, be faithful, delegate my domestic
management, please her with gifts and ornaments.
Now the Mahamangala Sutra chanting should be carefully
heard by the wedded couple and by all these seated
peacefully. This is given here in English translation thus.
DISCOURSE ON THE BEATITUDES
Thus have I heard. The Exalted One was once sojourning
hard by Savatthi in Jeta's grove in the monastery of Anatha
Pindika. Now one night a certain Deva, illumining the whole
Jetavana with his radiance, came where the Exalted One was,
and bowed down in salutation to Him, and stood on one side.
And so standing, the Deva addressed the exalted One in the
following stanza:
Many Devas and men
Have held various things to be blessing
When they were longing for happiness;
1. Do thou declare unto us the highest good.
The Exalted One answers:
2. Not to associate with the foolish,
But to serve the wise,
To honour those worthy of honour,
This is the greatest blessing.
3. To dwell in a pleasant land,
To have done good works in a former birth (stage & life),
To cherish right desires in the heart,
4. Much clarity and much learning,
And mastery over one's self,
And a pleasant manner of speech,
5. To support father and mother,

To cherish wife and child,
To follow a peaceful calling,
6. To give alms and to live uprightly,
To give help to one's kindred
And to act without reproach,
This is the greatest blessing
7. To abhor and cease from sin,
To abstain from strong drink,
To weary not in well doing,
These are the greatest blessings.
8. Reverence and lowliness,
Contentment and gratitude,
The hearing of the Doctrine at due seasons,
9. To be patient and gentle to foregather wit!l iovers of
peace, to speak in reason of spiritual things,
10. Self-restraint and purity,
The knowledge of the Noble Truths,
The realization of Nirvana
11. The mind that is not shaken
Amid all the leaps oflife,
That yields not to grief or passion,
12. They are scatheless on every side,
Who set their feet in these ways,
Their steps are attended by safety,
And this is the greatest blessing.
THE WEDDING OF VISAKHA

There are some edifying examples of wedded Buddhist
women in the Buddhist literature. So it will be beneficial to gain
some knowledge of the character ofVisakha, from this story.
One of the ideal and the chief among the lay women
disciples of the Buddha was Visakha. She was declared by him
to be foremost devotee to the order [dayikanam agga]. She was
the daughter of Dbananjaya and Sumana born in the city of
Bhaddiya in Anga country. When she was seven years old, the
Buddha visited the city of Bhaddiyas with a large company of
monks at the Brahmina Sela's concern. Her grandfather
Medaka gave Visakha companions, slaves and chariots, five
hundred each, to visit the Buddha and getting out of the
chariot walked on foot to salute him. Then she sat on one side.
And the Buddha preached her. After hearing the Buddha's
speech she became a Dhamma stream enterer, Shrotapanna.
For the next fortnight Medaka, Visakha's grandfather invited
the Buddha with his large company of monks daily to his house
for food.
Later, Visakha accompanied her parents to live in Saket,
in Kosala Kingdom as Bimbisara bad him so at Prasentjit's
request.
One day the Migara of Savatthi sent a messenger to find a
suitable bride for his son Punyavardhana. Visakha was on her
way to the bathing lake on that feast day. At that moment there
came a great shower of rain. Visakha's companions ran for
shelter, but Visakha herself, walking at her usual pace, came
to the place where messengers were awaiting her arrival. They
saw her and were greatly impressed by her manner. Then when
they asked her why she did not run to shelter to protect her
clothes like her other companions, she answered that she had
plenty of clothes in the house, but that if she ran she might
damage a limb which would be a great loss.
"Unmarried girls, she said. are like goods awaiting sale that
they must not be disfigured."
A bouquet of flowers was offered to her and her father was
consulted for the marriage proposal. It was confirmed by an
exchange of letters between both the parties.
Dhananajaya gave his daughter to Punyavardhna along

with a lavish dowry of five hundred carts full of money, five
hundred vessels of gold, five hundred each of silver, copper,
various silks, ghee, rice husked and winnowed; also ploughs,
ploughshares, and other farm implements, five hundred carts
with three slave women in each, everything being provided for
them. The cattle given by him filled an enclosure three quarters
of a league in length and eight rods across, standing shoulder
to shoulder and in addition to these sixty thousand bulls and
sixty thousand milch cows escaped from their stalls and joined
the herd already gifted to her.
All this abundance of gifts beyond one's imaginations must
be understood only as a token of the deepest love ofDhananjaya
towards his daughter, Visakha.
On the following day Dhananjaya appointed eight house-
holders to be sponsors to his daughter and to enquire into any
charges which might be brought against her. He allowed any
inhabitants of his fourteen tributary villages to accompany her,
but Migara, fearing that he should have to feed them, drove
most of them back.
When the time came for Visakha to leave, Dhananjaya gave
her ten admonitions, which Migara overheard from the next
room. These were:
INTERPRETATIONS OF TEN ADMONITIONS
TOVlSAKHA
(i) "The indoor,fire is not to be carried outside."
"Pray how could we live without giving fire to the neighbours
who live on both sides of us? Migara said the meaning of all of
them is explained thus by Visakha."
"Dear-daughter, if you see any fault in your father-in-law
or in your husband, say nothing about it when you go to this
house or to the other house, for there is no fire that may be
compared to this fire.
(ii) The outdoor fire is not to be carried inside
"If either women or men in your neighbours' houses speak
ill of your father-in-law or of your husband, you' must not bring
home what you have heard them say and repeat it, saying, "so-
and-so said this or that unkind thing about you." For there is
no fire comparable to this fire."
(iii) Give only to him that gives means that one should give
only to those that return borrowed articles.
(iv) Give not to him that gives not means that one should
not give to those who do not return borrowed articles.
(v) Give both to him that gives and to him that gives not
means that when poor kinsfolk and friends seek assistance, one
should give to them, whether or not they are able to repay.
(vi) Sit happily means that when a wife sees her mother-
in-law or her father-in-law or her husband, she should stand
and not remain sitting.
(vii) Eat happily means that a dife should not eat bpfore
her mother-in-law and her father-in-law and her husband have
eaten. She should serve them first and when she is sure that
they have all they care for, then and not until then may she
herself eat.
(viii) Sleep happily means that a wife should not go to bed
before her mother-in-law and her father-in-law and her
husband. She should first perform the major and minor duties
which she owes them, and when she has so done, then she may
herself lie down to sleep.
(ix) Tend the fire means that a wife should regard her
mother~in-Iaw and her father-in-law and her husband as a
flame of fire or as a Serpent-King.
(x) Honour the household divinities means that a wife
should look upon her mother-in-law and her father-in-law and
her husband as her divinities.
Visakha entered Savatthis standing in her chariot, so that
all might see her glory. The citizens showered gifts on her, but
these she distributed among the people.
Migara was a follower of the Niganthas, and soon after
Visakhas arrival in his house, he sent tor them and told her to
minister to them. But Visakha, repulsed by their nudity, refused
to pay them homage. The Nighanthas urged that she should
be sent away. But Migara bides his time. One day, as Migara
was eating, while Visakha stood fanning him, a monk was seen
standing outside his house. Visakha stood aside, that Migara
might see him, but Migara continued to eat without noticing
the monk, she said to the latter, "Pass on, sir, My father-in-law
eats stale fare." Migara was angry and threatened to send her
away, but at her request the matter was referred to her
sponsors. They enquired into the several charges brought
against her and adjudged her not guilty. Visakha then gave
orders that preparations should be made for her return to her
parents. But Migara begged her forgiveness which she granted,
on condition that he would invite to the house the Buddha and
his monks. This he did, but owing to the influence of the
Niganthas, he left Visakha to entertain them, and only
consented to hear the Buddha's sermon at the end of the meal
from behind a curtain. At the conclusion of this sermon,
however, he became a sotapanna, the stream-enterer. His
gratitude towards Visakha was boundless, henceforth she was
to be considered as his mother and to receive all the honour
due to a mother; from this time onwards she was called
Migaramata. In the Dhammapada, the most famous Buddhist
book of the Buddhas, words in verses, commentary it is told that
in order to conform this declaration, Migara sucked the breast
of Visakha. She had also a son named Migara, which as
Anguttara commentary says was her eldest son. For Visakha
Migara got made an ornament cost one hundred thousand. On
the day of the presentation of this ornament, he held for her a
special festival in her honour and made her to bathe in sixteen
pots of perfumed water."
Visakha had ten sons and ten daughters, each of whom had
a similar number of children, and so on down to the fourth
generation. Before her death, at the age of one hundred and
twenty, she had eighty-four thousand and twenty direct lineal
descendants all living. She was in great grief when her grand
daughter Datta died. Visakha herself kept, all her life, the
appearance of a girl of sixteen. She had the strength of five
elephants, and once she took the trunk of an elephant which
was sent to test her, between her two fingers and forced him
on his haunches.
Visakha owned a great reputation. She was always invited

by the people of Savatthi to their houses on festivals and
holidays for their good fortune. Visakha fed five hundred [two
thousand according to another account] monks daily at her
house. Later she appointed her grand-daughter Datta to
officiate for her. In the afternoon she visited the Buddha, and,
after listening to his sermon, would go round the monastery,
inquiring into the needs of the monks and runs.
Eight Boons to Visakha by Buddha
Visakha begged for, and was granted eight boons by the
Buddha. They are that as long as he lived she be allowed to
give-
1. robes to the members of the order for the rainy season.
2. food for monks coming into Savatthi.
3. food for those going out.
4. food for the sick.
5. food for those who wait on the sick.
6. medicine for the sick.
7. a constant supply of rice gruel for any needing it.
8. and bathing robes to the runs.
In the Vrnaya Pitaka the Buddha is told to have accepted
a face-towel as a special gift from Visakha but would not accept
an earthenware foot scrubber.
She built the monastery called Migaramatupasada in the
Pubbarama and at the opening ceremony of its festival she
walked round the monastery accompanied by her children, her
grand children, rejoicing and entirely filled with highest bliss.
It must now be understand by reader that any exaggeration
in this description is sumply to show the character as lifted and
greatly highlighted. Fairly I agree that all these words of
euphemism probably contained little wordly truth.
THE DISCIPLINE FOR GIRLS
At the same time it is the responsibility of parents to give
their children good education and right direction for their moral
life. They should bother to train the girls in this discipline.
There are occasions when householders consulted
Bhagawana Buddha to seek moral advice from him on
discipline for girls who are grown up for marriage. These rules
for girls enunciated by Lord Buddha on one such occasion when
he was invited by his devotee, Uggaha are also recorded here
for the general benefit. I hope you will find it worthwhile if you
will go through it.
Once the Exalted One dwelt near Bhaddiya in Jetiya wood
and there, Uggaha, Mendaka's grandson visited the Buddha.
Mter his salutation to the Blessed One Uggaha invited him for
a meal at his house. The Buddha then remaining silent accepted
his invitation.
Next day Buddha went to Uggaha's house and took his meal
there served by U ggaha. When the Lord finished his meal he·
withdrew his hand from the bowl. Then Uggaha sat down on
one side and said to the lord. "Lord, these girls of mine will be
going to their husband's families; Lord, let the Exalted One
counsel them for their good and happiness for many a day!"
Then the Blessed One spoke to them and said "Wherefore,
girls, train yourselves in this way; "To whatsoever husband our
parents shall give us-wishing our weal, seeking our happiness,
compassionate because of compassion for him we will rise up
early, be the last to retire, be willing workers, order all things
sweetly and be gentle voiced. Train yourselves thus girls.
"And in this way also, girls; 'we will honour revere, esteem
and respect all who are our husband's relatives, whether mother
or father, recluse or godly man, and on their arrival will offer
them a seat and water. Train yourselves thus girls.
"We will be deft and nimble at our husband's home-crafts
whether they will be of wool or cotton, making it our business
to understand the work so as to do and get it done. Train
yourselves thus, girls.
"Messengers and workfolk we will know the work of each
according to his share."
"The money, corn, silver and gold that our husband brings
home, we will keep safe. watch and ward over it and act as no
robber, thief, carouser, wastrel therein. Train yourselves thus,
girls."
On hearing this advice, the daughters of Uggaha felt
exceedingly happy and were grateful to the Lord.
If girls were born in India and they lived there for a

sufficient time they would find the above advice accurately fit
in the Indian environments.
In Europe vast differences are found in its specific culture
and civilization sometimes anti-climatic if compared to the
Indian for that matter Asian ethnic differences.
Despite these differences we can pick up very many things
of this advice to learn in any circumstances.
The Blessing
Now at the end of a Buddhist ceremony blessing is invoked
for devotees. Similarly for bride and the bridegroom this should
be invoked for protection by the power of the Triple Gem, the
Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. For this the following
stanzas of supreme blessing are recommended.
May all blessing be to you.
May all protect you.
By the power of all the
the Buddhas
may happiness all be yours!
By the power of the protection
may no misfortune result.
May your troubles come to nought.
May there be rain in due time!
May there be a rich
harvest!
May the world be contented!
May the government be righteous
By the power of all mighty
Buddhas, and all Arhatas
I secure your protection
every way.
The Buddhist Attitude towards Marriage

In the Christian tradition, marriage is usually termed a
"sacrament". In some branches of Christianity it is treated as
an indissoluble bond, though usually there are a few loopholes.
Other branches of Christianity permit divorce in certain rather
narrowly defined circumstances, and in some countries the state
permits divorce and the remarriage of divorced persons, with
or without the approval of the Church.
In Buddhism, marriage is not a "sacrament", as such a
concept does not exist. Be it holy wedlock or deadlock, an idea
is fanciful. In the Buddhist tradition it is often the custom for
Bhikkus to give their blessing after the civil wedding ceremony
has been performed. This choice of blessing even is entirely
theirs. Bhikkhus have no authority to enforce or dissolve or in
any way interfere the marriage. Today, Japan may be exception
for this.
Divorce is also a civil affair.
The practice of using contraception is entirely their busihess.
The Sangha have got no say or objection on that. It is a private
thing. It is no part of Bhikkhus, advice.
As far as Buddhist Vinaya is concerned, illicit sexual matters
and abortion might reasonably come to fall under a purview of
spiritual advice. Unless it is a fatal risk the latter will not be
condoned without involving the evil points. Because it
intervenes the very first Buddhist precept of no killing.
In marriage the responsibility of the wedded couple towards
each other and towards children is greatly involved. Obviously
any kind of irresponsibility in such circumstances will clearly
be offensive, if not fearful.
Where we call ourselves Buddhists or anything else if we
carefully remember and follow the five Buddhist precepts the
chances of marriage being successful are bright.
Excessive drinking is also a breach of the precept and so it
is one of the potent causes of unhappiness in marriages.
The other reasons for marriages breakdown are blames of
a partner. A partner can be impotent, ill, irresponsible, jealous,
drunken, a compulsive gambler, deranged, promiscuous, miserly,

unemployable, or several of these things. Both partners may
be charming people and yet they can be utterly unsuited to each
other. In these cases the marriages are held together because
of their children.
For Buddhists, monogamous marriage should be ideal
marriage. And it is really the same in all other Buddhist
countries.
Buddhist should make use of all their opportunities-only
to develop mindfulness at all times. In this way they can
overcome their problems of any complications.
If a wife loves a husband for her own pleasures and the
latter loves a wife for his own satisfaction then selfishness will
become a sole standard of the earning of their happiness. But
human experience is a real guide to person and it is clearly
evident from this that the more you are self-centered the
greater you get discontentment. More the craving, greater the
suffering.
So at all levels Buddhists must reflect and even meditate
on the following two statements quoted from a certain
newspaper.
"I am in Love" means
"I want me to be happy";
"I love" means
"I want to make you happy".
Golden Rule: Never Let Passion Override Compassion
May all being be Well and Happy
7
Buddhist Marriage and Succession
Act 2007
Dr. Nitin Raut
Concept and Evolution of Buddhist Law

The name Buddhism comes from the word "Buddi", which
means "To wake up" and thus Buddhism can be said to be the
philosophy of awakening. This Philosophy has its origin in the
experience of the man 'Siddharth Gautam' known as 'Buddha'.
Who was himself enlightened at the age of 35 in circa 6 th
century B.C.
Lord Buddha Preached the Dhamma in the form of sermons.
(1) The Buddha claimed no place for himself in his own
Dharnma.
(2) The Buddha did not promise to give salvation. He said
he was 'Marga-Data' (Way finder/path finder) and not
'Moksh-Data' (Giver of Salvation).
(3) The Buddha did not claim any divinity for himself nor
for His Dhamma. The Dhamma was discovered by the
man for man to man relationship. It was not a
revelation.
(4) The Buddha exhorted His followers not to take his
teachings by blind faith but to accept them only after
close investigation and inquiry as to whether the
teachings are really acceptable according to one's own
intelligence and experience. He did not want them to
accept it without clarity of ~ind and complete
understanding.
(5) The Buddha advocated that Man must know the truth
and real truth. To Him, freedom of expression of
thought was the most essential thing and He was sure
that freedom of expression and thought was the only

way to the discovery of truth.
(6) Buddhism teaches a man to live in peace and harmony.
Who is a Buddhist?
Any individual who has taken refuge in the three gems,
i.e. Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and tries to conduct his life
according to teachings of the blessed one, is termed a Buddhist.
A person who is born out of wedlock of Buddhist person. A
person who has embraced and converted to Buddhism earlier
to 1956 and thereafter. A worship er of Buddha, one adheres to
the system of Buddhism (Webster dictionary).
How is a Buddhist Separate and Distinct from a Hindu?
Some consider Buddhism as a reformed part of Hinduism.
But the fact is that it is totally a rejection of Hinduism.
Buddhism rejects the Brahminical supremacy and
dominance of priestly castes and treats all individuals as equals.
It rejects tenets of caste system, existence of Gods, Avtars, Soul
and concept of heaven and hell, authority of Vedas and also
other Hindu teachings but strongly believes in the innate power
of an individual. It teaches "Atta Deepo Bhav" meaning thereby
'be thy own light' to attain Nirvana i.e. enlightenment.
Dr. Ambedkar's Initiation into Buddhism
Young Ambedkar passed his matriculation in the year 1909.
He was felicitated in his chawl. He was the first matriculate in
the whole society. On this occasion, his teacher Arjunrao
Keluskar presented him a book titled Buddha Charitra. Young
boy up-till-now was confused with Ramayana and
Mahabharata. After reading Buddha Charitra his way of
thinking unde~ent total change and his mind was attracted
towards Buddha and his teachings.
In Yeola, (Dist. N asik) conference on 13 th Oct. 1935
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar thundered ''Unfortunately for me I was
born a Hindu Untouchable. It was beyond my power to prevent
that, but I declare that it is within my power to refuse to live
under ignoble and humiliating conditions. I solemnly assure you
that I will not die a Hindu". He had -fulfilled his vow.
Buddhist Marriage and Succession Act 2007 173
The Diksha
On 14th Oct 1956 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar embraced and
converted lakhs of People to Buddhism by giving Diksha to his
Dalit followers. On this occasion, Dr. Ambedkar commissioned
his followers the 22 pledges which emphasise that <Cl will not
regard Bramha, Vishnu and Mahesh" as Gods, nor will I
worship them. I embrace today the Dhamma of the Buddha,
discarding the Hindu religion, which is detrimental to the
emancipation of human being and which believes in equality.
Why do Dalits Embrace Buddhism?
To escape from the centuries - old caste system that puts
them at the bottom of the social order.
Sources of Buddhist Law
The sources of Buddhist Law are Lord Buddha's sermons.
Buddhism was founded in 6th century B.C. by Lord Buddha in
India. Buddhism discards authority of Vedas and also caste
system. Buddha advocated eight-fold path and five precepts
which all Buddha's devotees strive to observe.
The:Noble Eight-fold path is
(1) Right Understanding
(2) Right Thought
(3) Right Livelihood
(4) Right Effort
(5) Right Speech
(6) Right Action
(7) Right Mindfulness
(8) Right Contemplation
The Five Precepts are
( 1) To abstain from killing
(2) To abstain from stealing
(3) To abstain from adultery
(4) To abstain from lying and loose speech
(5) To abstain from intoxjcants and drugs.
When those Precepts were enunciated by the Buddha, he

had in mind the unsettled conditions of society prevailing
twenty five centuries ago in India. Those conditions were
caused by human feelings such as: anger which leads to killing;
greed which leads to stealing; undue sexual impulses that lead
to adultery; egoistic feelings that lead to telling false-hood and
absence of self control leads to undue consumption of intoxicants
or drugs.
That every follower of Buddhism is requested to repeat
these precepts again and again in daily life.
Tripitaka
The sacred book of Buddhism is called the Tripitaka. It is
written in an ancient Indian language called Pali, which is very
close to the language that the Buddha himself spoke. Tri means
three and Pitaka means basket.
The Buddhist scriptures consist of three sections. The first
section called the Sutta Pitaka, contains Buddha's all discourses.
The type of material in the Sutta Pitaka is very diverse which
allows it to communicate the truth, that the Lord Buddha
taught. Sutta Pitaka has five nikayas; Digha, Majjhima,
Sanyutta, Anyuttara and Khuddaka. The last has 15 books
including Dhammapada.
(ii) Dhammapada
Dhammapada presents the Buddha's teaching through the
poetry. The Dhammapada could be translated as "The way of
truth» or "Verses of truth" some profound, others of considerable
beauty, all spoken by the Lord Buddha. The Dhammpada is
most popular component of Buddhist literature and recognized
as one of the masterpieces of world religious literature.
(iii) Vinaya-pitaka
This contains the rules and procedures for monks and nuns,
advice on monastic administration and procedure and early
history of the monastic order. These are called the sacred epic
and constitute the sources of Buddhist law.
(iv) Moral and Ethical Conduct of a Buddhist
In Buddhism there can be no real morality without the
knowledge, no real knowledge without morality, and thus both

are bound up together like heat and light in a flame.
Buddhist morality is based on individual freedom i.e. on
individual development. It is therefore relative.
"The Buddha's doctrine of love and goodwill between man
and man is set forth in domestic and social ethics with more
comprehensiveness".
The most important elements of Buddhism, reform have
always been in social and moral code. The moral code taken by
itself is one of the most perfect the world has ever known.
The Lord Buddha was interested in the happiness of man-
kind. To him happiness was not possible without leading a pure
virtuous life based on morality.
(v) Philo sophical part of Tripitaka is called Abhidhamma
containing various volumes.
What is Dhamma?
1. Dhamma is a teaching of the Lord Buddha.
2. It's essence is to lead a Righteous life.
3. To maintain cordial relations between man and man.
4. It places man at the center of all things and believes
in his potential to attain his spiritual liberation.
5. It professes Panchashila and Eight-fold path for
virtuous living.
6. It teaches man to be kind and gentle, emphasizes love
and peace and universal compassion.
Distinction between Dharma (Religion) and Dhamma
Dharma (Religion): Recognition on the part of man of a
controlling superhuman power entitled to obedience, reverence,
and worship, the feeling or the spiritual attitude of those
recognizing such a controlling power, with the manifestation
of such feeling in conduct or life, the practice of sacrifice or
observances of a particular system of faith in and worship of a
super being or god or gods.
Dhamma: Lord Buddha's saying is that this path which is
his Dhamma had nothing to do with God and soul. His
Dhamma had nothing to do with life after death. Nor his
Dhamma has any concern with ritual and ceremonies. The

centre of his Dhamma is man and the relation of man to man
in his life on earth. The recognition of the existence of suffering
and the way to remove suffering is the foundation and basis
of his Dhamma.
Which is a Holy Book of Dhamma?
The Buddhist Cannons are: (l) Tripitaka, (II) Commentaries
and (Ill) Sub-commentaries on original policanon and (IV) part
canonical literature.
1. The Tripitika consists of (l) Vinay Pitika, (Il) Sutta
Pitika, (Ill) Abidhamma Pitika. These include various
discourses of the Buddha.
2. It is the richest treasure of spiritual knowledge and
practical wisdom.
3. 'Dhammapada' as the 15th book of khuddakanikaya
ofSutta-Pitaka is the sacred and holy Book for all the
Buddhists throughout the world. It contains sound
logic, superior teachings and practical philosophy of the
Buddha.
In the present time, the book which is accepted by the
Buddhists in general and religious historians and philosophers
as an essence of Pali canon and past canonical literature is
"The Buddha and his Dhamma" written by Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar which is a sacred book for Indian Buddhist.
(vi) Ethics and Social Relationship
The guidelines given by Lord Buddha should be honored
and respected by all who treasure and value our happy and
ethical family relationship, of course some of these injunction
are given since such a long time ago.
(i) Parents' duties towards their children
Restrain him from vice, exhort him to virtue, train him to
a profession, contract a suitable marriage for him and, in due
course of time, his inheritance.
(ii) The Teacher and Student
The teacher should train him well; cause him to learn well
thoroughly, instruct him in the lore of every art, speak well of
him among friends and companions and provide for his safety
in every quarter.
(iii) Student and his Teacher

The students should give respect to his teachers. By rising
(from his seat in salutation) waiting upon them with eagerness
to learn, personal service and by attention when receiving their
teachings.
(iv) The Husband and Wife
The husband should respect his wife 'By respect, courtesy,
faithfulness, handing over authority to her in the home, and
providing her with ornaments.
(v) The wife towards husband
She should perform her duties, show hospitality to her own
kin, her husband. She is faithful, watches over the goods he
brings and shows skill and artistry in discharging all her
business.
(vi) Friend Towards Friend
Protect one, when one is off one'!? guard and on such
occasions guard one's prosperity, they become a refuge in
danger, do not forsake one in times of trouble and show
consideration for one's family.
(vii) Master towards his servants
He should assign work according to their strength by
supplying them with food and wages, attending them in
sickness, sharing unusual delicacies with them, and granting
them leave at all appropriate times.
(viii) Wisdom
True wisdom is to directly see and understand ourselves.
Wisdom is to keep a open mind rather than being closed
minded. Always be ready to change our belief when facts that
contradict are presented to us that is wisdom. The Buddhist
Path requires courage, patience, flexibility and intelligence.
(vii) Lord Buddha's Concept of Marriage
According to Lord Buddha: Marriage plays a very
important part in this strong web of relationship of giving
support and protection. A good marriage should grow and
develop gradually from understanding and not impulse, from--· •._
true loyalty and not just sheer indulgence. The institution of

marriage provides a fine basis for the development of culture,
a delightful association of two individuals to be nurtured and
to be free from loneliness, deprivation and fear. Urge in living
beings in this regard is called sex urge. To channelize the sex
urge, the concept of marriage is developed in the society of
human beings.
It involves certain rights and duties between the parties
entering into wedlock, because Buddhist marriage is a sacrament
and not a contract.
In a broad sense marriage means a legally and socially
sanctioned union of man and woman that accords social status
to them as husband and wife and legitimacy to their offsprings.
According to Lord Buddha, a society relationship is mutually
inter-twined and interdependent. Every relationship is a whole-
hearted commitment to support and to protect others in a group
or community. Marriage plays a very important part in this
strong marital relationship of giving support and protection.
The institution of marriage provides a fine basis for the
development of cul~ure, a delightful association of two
individuals to be nurtured and to be free from loneliness,
deprivation and fear. In marriage, each partner develops a
complimentary role, giving strength and moral courage to one
another. There must be no thought of either man or woman
being superior. Each is complimentary to the other, as a
partnership of equality.
(viii) Statement of Object and Reasons
Hon'ble J.J. Bhau Wahane in the criminal case No. 246/89
of Suresh Rathi Vs State of Mah. has observed as under:
Stressing the need of marriage for a healthy social life, the
learned Judge says - "Marriage, whether considered as a
contract or sacrament, confers a status of husband and wife on
the parties to the marriage, of legitimacy on the children of the
marriage and gives rise to certain mutual rights and obligations
of spouses. All over the world, marriage began as a sacrament.
Marriage as a sacramental, necessarily implied a permanent and
indissoluble union. It was considered as an eternal union. It

was a holy and sacramental tie and not a contractual union.
It is also further observed by him that, - A man is incomplete
without his wife and it is wife who completes him. She is called
as Ardhangini (half of him). The wife is verily the half of the
husband. Those who have wives can fulfill their due obligations
in this world, can be happy and can lead a full life, wife is not
just a patni but Dharmapatni - (partner in the performances
of spiritual as well as secular duties). Thus, society conceived
of their marriage a sacramental union - a sacrosanct,
permanent, indissoluble and eternal union. The marriage is not
a contract, but it is a tie which once tied cannot be untied.
Undoubtedly, marriage as a social institution is regarded solemn
all over the civilized world. Thus, marriage came to be regarded
as a Sacrament and an indissoluble union.
As a social institution, there is a Social Interest in
preservation and protection of the institution of marriage. Thus,
it is also hedged with many legal protections. Therefore, not
only in the interest of the couple, but in the interest of the
society, the marriage tie should not be broken, on the contrary
it is to be seen that every couple must live happily and enjoy
the marital life.
As marriage is said to be security, it is irrevocable. It is
sacramental as well. The religious rites performed at the
marriage alter clearly indicates that man accepts the woman
as his better-half, by assuring her the protection as guardian,
ensuring food and necessities of life as the provider, giving
companionship as the mate and by resolving that the pleasure
and sorrows in the pursuit of life shall be shared with her and
Dhamma shall be observed. Marriage being social, it is the duty
of not only the couple, but everyone in the country, whether
an individual or an organization to maintain social metabolism.
The court has the obligation within reasonable limit and
justifying bounds to provide food for thought which may help
to generate the proper social order and hold the community in
an even form. Marriage is the very foundation of civil society
and no part of the laws and institutions of a country can be of
more vital importance to its subjects than those which regulate
the manner and conditions of forming and of dissolving the

marriage contract."
In order that the rites and ceremonies of marriage could be
regarded as customary, they must stand the test of time and
force of law without discontinuance at any point of time. It is
true that persons belonging to Buddhist community were
converted to the Buddhist faith from the Scheduled Caste
community sometime in the year 1956; but the Court can take
a judicial notice that during the last fifty years a different form
of marriage has been devised and adopted by these Buddhists
or those who were converted from the Scheduled Caste to
Buddhist faith at least in this part of the country especially in
Maharashtra state.
The different form of marriage is not only adopted but has
been recognized as a valid marriage amongst these people.
Thousands of marriages are solemnized in this new form and
according to these customary, rites and ceremonies of marriage.
The refusal to recognize the solemnization of such ceremonies
of marriage as a valid and legal marriage will lead these people
with untold miseries of grave social consequences.
(i) Judgement of the Supreme Court (Full Bench) P.B.
Gajendragadkar, C.J., K.N. Wanchoo, H. Hidayatullah
Rajhubar Dayal and J.R. Mudholkar Punjabrao-V/s- Dr. D.P.
Meshram AIR 1965, 1179 delivered by HOll'ble J.R. Mudholkar
If a public declaration is made by a person that he has
ceased to belong to his old religion and had accepted another
religion he will be taken as professing the other religion
irrespective of whether the conversion to another religion was
efficacious.
The word "Profess" in the presidential order appears to have
been used in a sense of an open declaration or practice by a
person of the Hindu (or the Sikh) religion. Where, therefore, a
person says on the contrary, that he has ceased to be Hindu.
Judgment of the Bombay High Court of Judicature at
Bombay bench at Nagpur in Smt. Shakuntala - V/s- Nilkanth
and Others in Criminal Appeal No. 29 of 1970 decided on 25-
10-1972 (Justice Masodkar)
Facts and Details

Shakuntala the bride was married to bridegroom Nilkanth
in a village Sakoli, Dist. Bhandara of Maharashtra State. After
some years of married life. Smt. Shakuntala, wife was deserted
by her husband, Nilkanth who solemnized second marriage
with another woman. Smt. Shakuntala's maintenances
allowance petition against her husband was dismissed by the
Judicial Magistrate First Class Sakoli, Dist. Bhandara and Smt.
Shakuntala preferred criminal Appeal No. 29 of 1970 in the
High Court, N agpur Bench, which was also dismissed.
This Judgment is reported on page No. 310 of Maharashtra
Law Journal 1973 as below:-
(a) Hindu Marriage Act (25 of 1955) S.S. 2.5 and 7
requirement of valid marriage-
Parties, Hindus at the time of marriage but marrying
according to Buddhist rites-fact that such marriages are
taking place for last 10 to 15 years is not enough to establish
custom-Marriage not valid.
(iv)In another criminal Appeal No. 815 of 1979. The
Bombay High Court Judicature at Bombay Hon'ble Justice R.S.
Bhonsale J. decided and delivered the Judgment on 28/
29.1.1981 same is reported in Maharashtra Law Journal page
No. 815 of 1981. in Babi W/o. Jayant Jagtap - V/s.- Jayant
Mahadeo Jagtap (R.S. Bhonsale J.)
(v) VALIDITY OF MARRIAGE BY CONVERTS TO
BUDDHISM IN ABSENCE OF SAPTAPADI
AND LAJJAHOMA.
Hindu Marriage Act (25 of 1955) S.7 and Penal codes. 494
Persons converted to Buddhism from Scheduled Caste
entering into marriage ceremony comprising of worship and
garlanding of photographs of Lord Buddha and Dr. Ambedkar
and thereafter reciting before those photographs "~ mtri ~,
~ mtri ~, ~ mtri ~" Garlanding each other and taking
oath that as wife and husband they would henceforth conduct
towards each other - Marriage so performed is legaL Husband
after such marriage marrying for the second time commits
offence under Sec. 494.
In the same Judgment in Para 13

A copy of this Judgment is directed to the Government of
Maharashtra Law and Judiciary Department for consideration.
The Government of Maharashtra should persuade the
Government of India to introduce necessary amendments to the
Hindu Marriage Act 1955, as suggested by the Government of
Maharashtra State Law Commission in its Ninth report on
"Some aspect of the Hindu Marriage Act" since the issues
effecting millions of people involving legitimacy of their children
are involved.
(vi) II 1985 Divorce and Matrimonial Cases
Criminal Revision No. 5 of 1984
Decided on 18-9-1984 present Hon'ble Dhabe J. Rekha -
V / s. - Ashok and others
(1) Code of Criminal procedure 1973 section 125 wife's
application for maintenance against alleged husband parties
found as Mahar Hindu by caste - Marriage of parties performed
according to Buddhist rites. No proof of conversion of Parties
to Buddhism. Marriage not legal and applicant held as not
entitled to maintenance under section 125 Cr. P.C.
The Supreme Court of India quoted in 1965 page No. 1181
in Punjabrao -V / s.- Dr. D.P. Meshram
The main object of Dr. Ambedkar was to secure for the
members of the Scheduled Castes an honourable place in society
and he felt that the various disabilities placed upon members
of these castes were due to the fact that in Hindu religion, to
which they belonged, they had been accorded the lowest rank
in society with the result that they had come to be regarded as
untouchables. He found that Buddhism is the only path of peace
and social equality.
Buddhist Marriage: Need for Codification:
Under inspiration of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar on Oct. 14
1956, lakhs of people in Maharashtra embraced Buddhism.
Since then a large number of Marriages have been solemnized
according to the Buddhist ceremony. This ceremony is
recognized by the people in the Maharashtra.
The Judgment delivered by the various courts and specially
by the Bombay High Court Judicature at Bombay and Nagpur
Bench in
(1) Shakuntala VIs. Nilkanth and others, 1972

(2) Babi W/o. Jagtap V/s.- Jayant Mahadeo Jagtap,
1981
(3) Rekha VIs. Ashok and others, 1985
above judgments created the doubt in the minds of the people.
Whether such marriages are valid or invalid? and created a
confusion in the minds of the people whether the marriages
which have been solemnized according to the Buddhist
Ceremony are valid.
The lakhs of Buddhist marriages have been held invalid in
Maharashtra because of the Bombay High Court Judgment in
the above three cases.
People are facing prosecutions lakhs of Buddhist women's
legal rights are infringed and women are helpless and being
exploited due to non-availability of Buddhist Marriage Act.
In Babi - Vls.- Jagtap 1981 Hon'ble Court delivered the
same judgment in Para 13.
A copy of the judgment is directed to be forwarded to the
Government of Maharashtra Law and Judiciary Department
for consideration. The Government of Maharashtra should
persuade the Government of India to introduce necessary
amendments to the Hindu Marriage Act 1955, as suggested by
the Government of Maharashtra St~e Law Commission in its
Ninth report on "Some aspect of the Hindu Marriage Act" since
the issues effecting millions of people involving legitimacy of
their children are involved.
It is unfortunate to mention that Bombay High Court had
given direction to the State of Maharashtra to take up the
matter with the Govt. of India for making suitable amendment
in the Hindu M~rriage Act 1955. Such direction is given in the
case of Babi VIs. State of Maharashtra 1981 but till date Govt.
of Maharashtra has not taken any steps to carry out such
judgment. Therefore, there is no other alternative than to enact
a Buddhist Marriage and Succession Act.
A stage has been reached when codification at least of the
law of Marriage and Succession had become virtually
indispensable for fundamental changes, which had become

inevitable to furnish fair and equitable solution to some of the
most controversial question relating to the law of marriage and
succession of Buddhist.
It has been generally recognized for a long time that the
rules of marriage should be according to the Buddhist rites and
ceremonies recognized under a body of law.
Buddhist Marriage and Succession Act, 2007
PART ONE
(1) Short Title
This Act shall be known as "Buddhist Marriage and
Succession Act-2007."
(2) Extent
This Act shall be applicable to all the Buddhist Citizens
throughout the State and is retrospective in its
operation.
(3) Definitions
(1) Marriage means "Buddhist Marriage"
(2) "BHANTE" "BHIKKHU" "MENDICANT' means a
Buddhist Monk who is authorized to solemnize
Buddhist Marriage.
(3) ''UPASAKA'' means a competent citizen, a follower of
"Buddha Dhamma" and essence of the Dhamma, is
authorized to solemnize Buddhist Marriage.
(4) "Bouddha Vihara" means a place where people offer
their obeisance (Prayer) to Lord Buddha. Such place
where Buddhist marriage is solemnized.
(5) Customs and Ceremonies
Since 14th Oct 1956 conversion to Buddhism by
Scheduled Caste, the Buddhists represented a simple
and solemn ceremony of marriage is adopted by the
Buddhist from the year 1956 onwards is said to be the
customary form of valid marriage and recognized
amongst Buddhists.
(a) Customs
The custom is defined as under.
There are five ingredients included in it
1. It has been continuously and uniformly observed for
a long time.
2. It has obtained the force of Law
3. It is certain
4. It is not unreasonable or opposed to public policy
5. In case of a rule applicable only to a family, it has not
been discontinued by the family.
As per the Oxford Dictionary custom means "The usual way
of behaving or acting, the particular established way of
behaving."
The custom in general is a practice that has become
habitual. In English Law, a custom is an ancient rule of law
for a particular locality, di~ering from the common law of the
country. Traditionally, much of the common law was based on
what had become customary in the country at large and in this
sense custom is indeed the mother of all institutions.
The parents or the family heads of both prospective bride
and bridegroom exchange their wishes to tie them in wedlock
having given their consent. They agree to enhance cordial
relations between two families and perform a ceremony called
Engagement (Saksha Gandha) before a select gathering of near
and dear ones of the two families and family friends.
(b) Ceremonies
The marriage ceremony is performed even by the Upasaka
who is a common man devoted to the duties of Upasaka. There
is no such condition that the marriage should pe performed by
the Bhikkhu or Monk only.
(a) At the time of marriage bride must be 18 yrs. and
brigegroom of21 yrs age.
(b) At the time of marriage ceremony the bride and

bridegroom should wear simple white dress/clothes.
(c) Bride and Bridegroom worship the photographs of
Lord Buddha and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, lit the
candles before photographs and garland the
photographs.
(d) With folded hands before the above Photographs and
recital of TrisharanlPanchasheel, Buddha Vandana,
Dhamma Vandana, Sangha Vandana, Mahamangal
Sutta, Mahamangal Gatha and "Sadhu"-"Sadhu"-
"Sadhu" are recited.
(e) Mter this the bride and bridegroom garland each other
and the persons who witness the marriage ceremony
shower flowers on them.
(0 Later on the bride and bridegroom take the oath in
the presence of the assembled guests and invitees.
(g) Rubbing Ashtagandha by bridegroom to the forehead
of bride.
(h) The bridegroom ties the Mangal-Sutra to the bride.
(i) No dowry is offered by either side.
(5) Conditions for A Buddhist Marriage
A marriage is solemnized between two major persons, i.e.,
man and woman irrespective of their faith if the following
conditions are fulfilled:
(1) Neither party has a spouse living at the time of the
marriage.
At the time of the marriage neither party
(a) Is incapable of giving a valid consent to it" in
consequence of unsoundness of mind or
(b) Though capable of giving a valid consent has been
suffering from mental disorder of such a kind or to such
an extent as to be unfit for marriage and procreation
of children.
(c) Has been subject to recurrent attacks of insanity.
(2) The bridegroom has completed the age of (twenty one

years) and the bride the age of (eighteen years) at the time of
the marriage.
The parties are not within a degrees of prohibited relationship.
(6) Rites and Rituals
Person eligible to solemnize Buddhist Marriage.
(1) BHANTE, BHIKKHU, MENDICANT, i.e., a Buddhist
Monk is authorized to solemnize marriage according
to Buddhist Mal"!iage Ceremony.
(2) Any Buddhist Upasaka is authorized to solemnize
marriage according to Buddhist marriage ceremony.
The words uttered by them are as under
Duties of the bridegroom
1. :e ut 1"1"114 I will Honour my wife
2. at "Iq 't 1'1"11 4 I will not disrespect my wife
3. atf.:tRt""fl414 I will not do a bad thing and I will
refrain from doing the same
I will keep my wife happy by
giving the necessary things of life
I will treat my wife as equal in
days of happiness and prosperity.
Duties of bride
1. :q:efqrndCfiutWflI I will take care of my family
members.
I will show courtesy to my family
members.
I will not do a bad thing and I will
refrain from. doing the same.
I will protect my house by all
means.
5. ~ ~ 3RffiIT I will do my household works
~ :e.. r<tl:cil~ with due care and curiosity.
Thus the marriage is solemnized.
(7) Marriage between Buddhist and Non-buddhist

A marriage solemnized according to the Buddhist ceremony
between two major persons one of whom is a Buddhist and
other is non-Buddhist, the couple shall be declared as Buddhist
and all the concessions, facilities provided by Govt., the couple
and their progeny shall be eligible and entitled to them as
applicable to Buddhists vide State Govt. G.R. Labour Social
Welfare Dept. 12.8.1958.
(8) Re-marriage (Pat-marriageNivah)
In the circumstances, when one of the spouses wishes to get
re-married due to (i) death of the other party (ii) Divorce hel
she shall be permitted to get re-married after clearing all the
legal obligations (if any) as imposed by civil law.
In case of legal divorce, the obligation of providing
maintenance to the other party, as directed by the competent
court, shall be adhered to before getting re-married.
All conditions and restrictions, etc., applicable in connection
with remarriage, prescribed in civil and criminal laws prevailing
as to-day shall also be applicable to the Remarrying partners
in Buddhist Marriages.
(9) Certificate of Buddhist Marriages
This certificate of marriage is issued according to provisions
of Buddhist Marriage Act-2007 enacted by Government of
Maharashtra.
Any Upasaka or Bhante, Bhikkhu can perform marriage as
per Buddhist Ceremonies. He will have to issue certificate of
solemnizing o~ marriage. On the basis of such certificate,
invitation card, photograph of bridegroom and bride and
witnesses to marriage, the sub-registrar of marriages duly filled
in the proforma shall issue certificate of marriage to the
applicants remitting fees admissible at that time such certificate
is to be issued immediately.
(IO) Registration of Buddhist Marriages
(1) For the purpose of facilitating the proof of Buddhist
marriages, the Government may make rules providing that the
parties to any such marriage may have the particulars relating

to their marriage entered in such manner and subject to such
conditions as may be prescribed in a Buddhist Marriage Register
kept for the purpose.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1)
the state Government may, if it is of the opinion that it is
necessary or expedient so to do, provide that the entering of
the particulars ,referred to be in sub section (1) shall be
compulsory in the state.
(3) The Buddhist Marriage Register shall, at all reasonable
times, be open for inspection and shall be admissible as evidence
therein contained and certified extracts therefrom shall on
application, be given by the Registrar on payment of the
prescribed fees.
(4) Notwithstanding any thing contained in this section the
validity of any Buddhist marriage shall, in no way, be affected
by the omission to make the entry.
"Bhavatu Saba Mangalam"
THE BUDDHIST SUCCESSION ACT· 2007
CHAPTER·I
PRELIMINARY
1. TITLE and Extent:
1. The title to the present Act states the Act relates to the
law of succession among Buddhists. This Act shall be
called the Buddhist Succession Act 2007.
2. It extends to the state ofMaharashtra.
2; Application of Act:
This Act applies
(a) To any person who is Buddhist by religion.
(b) To any person who comes under the definition of
Buddhist given in Buddhist Marriage Act-2007.
(c) A person who is converted on 14th Oct 1956 and
thereafter to Buddhism and his offsprings.
(d) The enforcement of this Act shall be retrospective in
its order.
Explanation: These following persons are Buddhist by

religion, as the case may be.
(a) Any child, legitimate or illegitimate, both of whose
parents are Buddhist by religion.
(b) Any child, legitimate or iIIigitimate, one of whose
parents is a Buddhist by religion, and who is brought
up as a member of the tribe, community, group or
family to which such parent belongs or belonged.
(c) Any person who is a convert or reconvert to the
Buddhism.
3. Definition and Interpretation
(1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires -
(a) "Agnate" one person is said to be an "agnate" of another
if the two are related by blood or adoption wholly
through males.
(b) "cognate" one person is said to be a cognate of another
if two are related by blood or adoption but not wholly
through males. .
(c) "full blood", "half blood" and "uterine blood"
(i) Two persons said to be related to each other by full
blood when they are descended from a common
ancestor by the same wife, and by half blood when they
are descended from a common ancestor but by different
wives.
(ii) Two persons are said to be related to each by uterine
blood when they are descended from a common
ancestor but by different wives.
In this clause "ancestor" included the father and
"ancestress" the mother.
(d) "heir" means any person, male or female, who is
entitled to succeed to the property of an intestate under
this Act.
(e) "intestate" a person is deemed to die intestate in respect
of property of which he or she has not made a
testamentary disposition capable of taking effect.
(f> "related" means related by legitimate kinship.
Buddh ist Marriage and Succession Act 2007 191
4. THE SCHE DULE

Class I Heirs Class II Heirs (in nine categor ies)
(1) Mother Category I. Father
Category If.
(2) Widow. (a) Son's daughte r's sons.
(b) Son's daughte r's daughte r.
(3) Daught er (c) Brother s.
(4) Son (d) Sister
Category Ill.
(5) Widow of pre-dece ased son
(a) Daughte r's Son's son
(6) Son of a pre-dece ased son (b) Daughte rs' Son's daughte r
(7) Daught er of a pre-dece ased son (c) Daughte rs' daughte rs' son
(d) Daughte rs' daughte r's daughte r
(8) Widow of a pre-dece ased son of
a pre-dec eased son Category IV.
(9) Daught er of a pre-dece ased son (a) Brother 's son
of a pre-dece ased son (b) Brother 's daughte r
(c) Sister's son
(10) Son of a pre-dece ased son of a (d) Sister's daughte r
pre-dec eased son Category V.
(11) Daught er of a pre-dece ased (a) Father's father
daughte r (b) Father's mother
Category VI.
(12) Son of pre-dec eased daughte r (a) Father's widow
(b) Brother 's widow.
(13) Son of pre-dece ased daughte r of Category VII.
a pre-dec eased daughte r. (a) Father's brother
(b) Father's sister.
(14) Daught er of pre-dec eased
daughte r of a pre-dece ased
daughte r. Category VIII.
(15) Daught er of pre-dec eased son (a) Mother' s Father.
of a pre-dec eased daughte r (b) Mother' s mother.
Category IX.
(16) Daught er of a pre-dece ased (a) Mother' s brother.
daughte r of pre-dece ased son. (b) Mother' s sister
CHAP TER 11
INTESTATE SUCC ESSIO N
5. Devol ution of Intere st in Copar cenar y Prope rty
(1) The daugh ter of a coparc ener shall.
(a) By birth becom e a coparc ener in her own right in the
same manne r as the son.
(b) Have the same rights in the coparcenary property as

she would have had if she had been a son.
(c) Be subject to the same liabilities in respect the said
comparcenary property as that of a son.
(2) The Coparcenary property shall be deemed to have been
divided as if a partition had taken place, and-
(a) The daughter is allowed the same share as is allowed
to a son.
Cb) The share of the pre-deceased son or a, pre-deceased
daughter, as they would have got had they been alive
at the time, of partition, shall be allotted to the
surviving child of such pre-deceased son or of such
pre-deceased daughter and
(c) The share of the pre-deceased child of a pre-deceased
son or of a pie-deceased daughter, as such child would
have got had he or she been alive at the time of the
partition, shall be allowed to the child of such pre-
deceased child of the pre-deceased son or a pre-
deceased daughter, as the case may be.
Explanation: For the purposes of this section "Partition"
means any partition made by execution of a deed of partition
duly registered under the Registrar Act 1908 (16 of 1908) or
partition effected by a decree of a court.
6. General Rules of Succession in the Case of Buddhist
Male
The property of a male Buddhist dying intestate shall
devolve according to the provisions of this chapter -
Ca) Firstly, upon the heirs, being the relatives specified in
class I of the schedule.
(b) Secondly, if there is no heir of class I, then upon the
heirs, being the relatives specified in class II of the
schedule.
(c) Thirdly, if there is no heir of any of the two classes,
then upon the agnates of the deceased; and
(d) Lastly, if there is no agnate, then upon the cognates
of the deceased.
7. Distribution of Property Among Heirs in Class I of

the Schedule
The property of an intestate shall be divided among the
heirs in class I of the schedule in accordance with the following
rules.
Rule 1 - The intestate's widow, or if there are more widows
than one, all the widows together, shall take one share.
Rule 2 - The surviving sons and daughters and the mother
of the intestate shall each take one share.
Rule 3 - The heirs in the branch of each pre-decea~t.'d son
or each pre-deceased daughter of the int('·~dt"'· ;·,hs l[ take
between them one share.
Rule 4 - The distribution of the shdre referred to in Rule
3 ...
(1) Among the heirs in the branch of the pre-deceased son
shall be so made that his widow (or widows together)
and the surviving sons and daughters get equa:
portions, and the branch of his predeceased sons gets
the same portion.
(2) Among the heirs in the branch of the pre-deceased
daughter shall be so made that the surviving sons and
daughters get equal portion.
S. Distribution of Property Among Heirs in Class 11 of
the Schedule
The Property of an intestate shall be divided between the
heirs specified in anyone entry in class II of the schedule so
that they share equally.
9. Order of Succession Among Agnates and Cognates
The order of succession among agnares or cognates, as the
case may be, shall be determined in accordance with the rules
of preference laid down hereunder.
Rule 1 - of two heirs, the one who has fewer or no degrees
of ascent is preferred.
Rule 2 - where the number of degrees of ascent is the same

or none, that heir is preferred who has fewer or no degrees of
descent.
Rule 3 - where neither heirs is entitled to be preferred to
the other under Rule 1 or Rule 2 they take simultaneously.
10. Computation of Degrees
(1) For the purposes of determining the order of succession
among agnates or cognates, relationship shall be
reckoned from the intestate to the heir in terms of
degrees of ascent or degrees of descent or both, as the
case may be.
(2) Degrees of ascent and degrees of descent shall be
computed inclusive of the intestate.
(3) Every generation constitutes a degree either ascending
or descending.
11. Property of a Female Buddhist as her Absolute
Property
(1) Any property possessed by a female Buddhist, whether
acquired before or after the commencement of this Act,
shall be held by her as full owner thereof and not as
a limited owner.
Explanation: In this sub-section "Property" includes both
movable and immovable property ac(~uired by a female
Buddhist by inheritance or devise, or at a partition, or in lieu
of maintenance or arrears of maintenance, or by gift from any
person, whether a relative or not, before, at or after her
marriage, or by her own skill or exertion, or by purchase or by
prescription, or in any other manner whatsoever, and also any
such property held by her as stridhana immediately before the
commencement of this Act.
(2) Nothing contained in sub-section (1) shall apply to any
property acquired by way of gift or under a will or any other
instrument or under a decree or order of a civil court or under
all award where the terms of the gift, will or other instrument
or the decree, order or award prescribe a restricted estate in
such property.
The Supreme Court held in BAIVIJAYA vis Thakuribai

Chela Bhain AIR 1979 S.C. 993
This section recognizes equality of sexes and elevates the
women from subservient position in the field of economy to a
higher pedestal. Now the women can enjoy and have full
powers as regards disposal of property held by them. They are
to be taken as owners without putting any artificial limitations
on their right of ownership.
12. General Rules of Succession in the Case of Female
Buddhist
(1) The Property of a female Buddhist dying intestate shall
devolve according to the rules set out in section 14.
(a) Firstly, upon the sons and daughters (including the
children of any Pre-deceased son or daughter) and the
husband.
(b) Secondly, upon the heirs of the husband.
(c) Thirdly, upon the mother and father.
(d) Fourthly, upon the heirs of the father and
e) Lastly, upon the heirs of the mother.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1).
Ca) Any property inherited by a female Buddhist from her
father or mother shall devolve, in the absence of any
son or daughter of the deceased (including the children
of any pre-deceased son or daughter) not upon the
other heirs referred to in sub-section (1) in the
order specified therein, but upon the heirs of the father,
and
(b) Any property inherited by a female Buddhist from her
husband or from her father-in-law shall devolve, in the
absence of any son or daughter of the deceased
(including the children of any pre-deceased son or
daughter) not upon the other heirs referred to in
sub-section (1) in the order specified therein, but upon
the heirs of the husband.
13. Order of Succession and Manner of Distribution

Among Heirs of a Famale Buddhist
The order of Succession among the heirs referred to in
section 13 shall be, and the distribution of the intestate's
property among those heirs shall take place, according to the
following rules namely.
Rule 1 - Among the heirs specified in sub-section (1) of
section 13 those in one entry shall be preferred to those in any
succeeding entry and those including in the same entry shall
take simultaneously.
Rule 2 - If any son or daughter of the intestate had pre-
deceased the intestate leaving his or her own children alive at
the time of the intestate's death, the children of such son or
daughter shall take between them the share which such son
or daughter would have taken if living at the intestate's death.
Rule 3 - The devolution of the property of the intestate on
the heirs referred to in clause (b) (d) & (e) of sub-section in sub-
section (2) of section 13 shall be in the same order and
according to the same rules as would have applied if the
property had been the father's or mother's or the husband's as
the case may be, and such person has died intestate in respect
thereof immediately after the intestate's death.
14. General Provisions Relatings to Succession
Full blood preferred to half blood. Heirs related to an
intestate by full blood shall be preferred to heirs related by half
blood, if the nature of the relationship is the same in every other
respect.
15. Mode of Succession of Two or More Heirs
If two or more heirs succeed together to the property of an
intestate, they shall take the property-
(a) Save as otherwise expressly provided in this Act, per
capita and not per strips and
(b) As tenants-in-common and not as joint tenants.
Buddh ist Marriage and Succession Act 2007 197
16. Right of Child in Womb

A child who was in the womb at the time of death of an
intesta te and who is subseq uently born alive has the same right
to inheri t to the intesta te as if he or she had been born before
the death of the intesta te, and the inheri tance shall be deeme d
to vest in such a case with effect from the date of the death of
the intesta te.
17. Presu mptio n in Cases of Simu ltaneo us Death s
Where two person s have died in circum stance s render ing
it uncert ain wheth er either of them, and if so which, surviv ed
the other, then for all purpos es affecti ng succes sion to proper ty,
it shall be presum ed, until the contra ry is proved , that young er
surviv ed the elder.
18. Murd erer Disqu alifie d
A person who comm its murde r or abets the comm ission of
murde r shall be disqua lified from inheri ting the proper ty of the
person murde red, or any other proper ty in furthe rance of the
succe ssion to which he or she comm itted or abette d of
comm ission of the murde r.
19. Succe ssion when Heir Disqu alifie d
If any person is disqua lified from inheri ting any proper ty
under this Act, it shall devolve as if such person had died before
the intesta te.
20. Disea se, Defec t, etc. Not be Disqu alifie d
No person shall be disqua lified from succee ding to any
proper ty on the groun d of any diseas e, defect or deform ity or
save as provid ed in this Act, any other groun d whatso ever.
21. Failu re of Heirs
If an intesta te has left no heir qualifi ed to succee d to his or
her proper ty in accord ance with the provis ions of this Act, such
proper ty shall devolve on the govern ment, and the govern ment
shall take the prope rty subjec t to all the obliga tions and
liabili ties to which an heir would have been subjec ted.
CHAPTER III
22. Testamentary Succession
Any Buddhist may dispose of by will or other testamentary
disposition any property, which is capable of being so (disposed
by him or by her) in accordance with the provisions of the
Indian Succession Act 1925.
8
Deeksha Bhoomi of Ambedkar
C.D. Naik
Situated on the River Nag, Nagpur is the orange-growing

capital ofIndia. It was once the capital of the central province,
but was later incorporated into Maharashtra. Long ago it was
a centre for the aboriginal Gond tribes who remained in power
until the early 18th century, and many Gonds still live in the
region.
In the recent years there has been some desultory agitation
for a separate Indian state of Vidarbha, which would have
N agpur as its capital.
On 14th October each year the town is host to the hundred
thousands of Buddhists who come to celebrate the anniversary
of Dr. Ambedkar's conversion to Buddhists in 1956. An estimated
three million low caste Hindus followed him in converting to
Buddhism that year.
Nagpur's History
Nagpur was supposed to be the capital of first Buddhist
followers of Naga Tribe situated at the bank of river Naga,
which is still flowing across the city. In hills and hillocks of
Hidimba Tekadi, 40 kms. from N agpur near Mansar, pieces of
terracotta from Maurya, Shunga and Vakataka periods have
been obtained by archeologists. The name Nagpur appeared for
the first time on record in 10th century A.D. The Gond King
Bakht Buland Shah of Devagad State founded N agpur city on
the bank of Nag river joined by 12 small hamlets known as
Rajapur Barasa in 1702. His eldest son Raja Chand ascended
the throne of Devagad in 1706 and he shifted his capital from
Devagad to Nagpur. He constructed his fortress at Mahal
surrounded by 3 kms. long wall and planned layout of N agpur
city. He ruled for 33 years. After him Bhosle dynasty of Deor
under Raghuji dominated the place in 1742. Then Pendhari
marauders burnt the city in 1765 and in 1811 again but

Bhonsle developed the areas called N awabpur, old Mangalwari,
Shukrawari tank, Hansapuri, Jaripatka, Rajabaksha, Rambagh
and Itwari. The city was lost to Britishers from the Marathas
at the battle of Sitabuldi in 1817 and 1853, when it was
incorporated into British residency. The first freedom struggle
of 1857 laid down the foundation of many non-violent, non-
cooperation movements. In 1861 Nagpur became capital of
Central provinces. Three years later the Municipality of Nagpur
was established.
The first train steamed out of Nagpur to Bombay was in
1867. In 1891 the seventh All India Congress Session under
the chairmanship of P. Anandacharlu of Chennai was held at
Lalbagh on 28th December. Eight years later plague took heavy
toll in Nagpur. Two years later Cotton market and C.P. Club
were founded with foundation of Indra in 1905, Punjabi line
in 1911 and English daily 'The Hitavada' in the same year. In
1912 Vidhan Sabha was laid. The year 1920 saw laying down
of new Congress N agar colony near Dhantoli park on the
conclusion of 35th All India Congress session, Nagpur under
the presidentship of Shri Jamnalal Bajaj. On May 30, Dr.
Ambedkar addressed The Untouchable conference chaired by
Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj. Mahatma Gandhi led the
Congress since, three years later Pt. Nehru and Rajrishi Tandon
involved themselves in protest rally of Jhanda Satyagrah
Andolan and to mark this event Nagpur University was
founded (1923). This was followed by the laying of Ramdaspeth
and Lashkari Bagh, New Colony, and Dhantoli. In 1930 on
8-9th August All India Bahishkrit Classes Conference under the
presidentship of Dr. Ambedkar was also held in Nagpur.
Gondawana Club and Hindi Navbharat were started in 1934.
Hindustani Lal Sena was founded by Maganlal Bagdi during
the period between 1936 and 1938. In 1940 Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose's Forward Block Party organized its second All
India session. When Bharat Chodo Andolan was vigorously
running in "N agpur in 1942 freedom fighter Shankar was
Deeksha Bhoomi ofAmbedkar 201
hang.ed. On 13th December 1945 Dr. Ambedkar addressed

public gathering and on 3rd September 1946 the Scheduled
Caste Federation staged a satyagrah against Poona Pact."
Finally India got its freedom in 1947. All India Radio
Station was founded in the city in the year. Nagpur was
declared capital of Madhya Pradesh in 1950 and. a year later
Nagpur Municipality became Municipal Corporation, which
later on 15.10.1956 gave its encomium to Dr. Ambedkar after
his historical peaceful Dhamma revolution.
Bharatiya Jansangh came into being in 1951. On 2nd May
1954, Dr. Ambedkar visited Vidarbha Sahitya Sangha and on
14th October 1956 Dr. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism along
with his five lakh followers at Deeksha Bhoomi followed by
Nagpur Municipal Corporation's encomium conferred on him
the following day. On 17th October 1957, the Nag Vidarbha
Andolan Samiti was formed and a year later the third All India
Congress party session was held at Abhyankar N agar. It was
in 1960 that Nagpur was transferred from Madhya Pradesh
and it became the second capital to Maharashtra with first
session of state legislature held there.
First Buddhist followers of N aga tribe were settled at the
bank of Naga river in Nagpur. Dr. Ambedkar was in Nagpur
at five times, first, when in 1930 on 8-9th August All India
Depressed Classes Congress was held on fundamental rights
and philosophy under his presidentship, second, when on 13th
December 1945 Dr. Ambedkar addressed public gathering, third,
when on 3rd September 1946 the Scheduled Caste Federation
staged Satyagrah against Poona Pact, fourth when on 2nd May
1954 Dr. Ambedkar visited Vidarbha Sahitya Sangha, and fifth,
when on 14th October 1956 Dr. Ambedkar embraced Buddhism
along with his five lakh followers at Deeksha Bhoomi and when
Nagpur Municipal Corporation gave its encomium to Dr.
Ambedkar the next day. Thus Nagpur has been a well
established city, politically active, historically documented and
hollowed by visits of Dr. Ambedkar.
Need for Political Protection of Minorities Proposed by

Ambedkar
While speaking on the Budget on February 1927 in the
Bombay Legislative Council Dr. Ambedkar said, "If all
communities are to be brought to the level of equality, then,
the only remedy is to adopt the principle of inequality and to
give favoured treatment to those who are below the level."
Writing his note of dissent to the report of the Simon
Commission in 1927-28 Dr. Ambedkar said, "There will be a
general agreement that the needs of the minority for the
political protection are commensurate with the power it has to
protect itself in the social struggle. That power obviously
depends upon the educational status of the minorities. The
higher the educational and economic status of a minority, the
less is the need for it being politically protected. On the other
hand the lower the educational and economic status of a
minority, the greater will be the need for its political protection."
Starte Committee
Reservation in Government services, Assemblies and
education were accepted both by the Central and Provincial
Governments long before the inception of the Constitution of
India. The Government of Bombay appointed under an ICS
Officer, Mr. Starte, the Starte Committee in 1930. Its report
highlighted the condition of the Depressed Classes as caused
by pollution and isolation and su~gested some special facilities
in education, reservation and recruitment in the public services
approved by the then Bombay Government in 1930 and
accepted by the then India Government purely on the ground
of the principle of social justice in 1934.
Eligibility Cri{eria
The criteria of eligible people for such political and social
safeguard and social justice adopted by the Indian Government
of the time and post-jndependent Constitution oflndia were two
namely, (1) inability of the community to protect itself in the
social struggle and (2) Community's backwardness III
educational, economic and social status and position.
Principle of Reservation
Applying these principles to the Buddhist converts it is
obvious that they are entitled to reservation and safeguards,
concessions and facilities which they enjoyed before their
conversion. In order to enable those who were denied rights
and privileges, the necessity was felt and was accepted to give
such people special representation by way of giving reservation
and safeguards so that they can raise themselves in the social
scale to enable them to give their consent to the Democratic Rule
and to take part in the administration of the country. Besides
this political foundation there was social philosophy behind this.
The Indian Constitution not only has accepted the philosophy
of fundamental rights, but has created a very powerful State
as the central authority over and above the authority of the
caste and the Indian Social System. The State, has been
considered and determined in the constitution itself as a
powerful instrument of changing the Indian society itself
Based on the theory of fundamental rights and principle of
reservation Article 46 of Indian Constitution and Article 35 of
the Constitution of Burma respectively read: "The State shall
promote with special care the educational and economic interest
of (Indian Constitution) weaker sectionl(Burmese Constitution)
weaker and less advanced section, (both Indian and Burmese
Constitutions) of the people, and, (Indian Constitution) in
particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes,
(both Constitutions) and shall protect from social injustice and
all forms of exploitation." This has its origin in dissent note of
Ambedkar to Simon Commission report on the ground of social
justice referred to above. No other Constitution of world spoke
about such protection clauses. Dr. B.N. Rao was the
constitutional advisor to Drafting Committees both of the Indian
and Burmese Constitutions. Directive principle under Article
46 of Indian Constitution is as justiciable as the Federal
Principle of American Constitution and Principle of Sovereignty
of Parliament under Constitution of United Kingdom and
similar principle in the Constitution of Ireland. Chief Justice

Shri P.B. Gajendragadkar of Supreme Court also decided in
favour of its justifiability. Principle of constitutions presupposes
the principle of social justice. Article 46 also enjoins the State
to promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people besides protecting
them from social injustice and exploitation. Article 15(4) reads
that it would be open to the State to make special provisions
for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward
classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. Article 46 directs the State and Article 15(4) obligates it
under fundamental right of a citizen. Both are complementary.
Article 16(4) as fundamental right of citizen under part XVI of
Constitution provided for reservation in appointments and posts
for the purpose of giving representation in the public services
in favour of any backward class of citizens. Both Articles 15(4)
and 16(4) speak of exercise of power by state to advance socially
and educationally and in public service sector the backward
class of citizens, implying SCs, STs and Weaker Section of the
people under Article 46. Article 335 is related to this in that it
mentioned taking into consideration the claims of the SCs and
STs at the time of appointment in the public services. So Articles
330 and 335 are complementary to Articles 46, 15(4) and 16(4)
in accepting the principle of the reservation for adequate
representation in the legislature and in the public services etc.
for economically and socially backward class of citizens or
weaker sections of the people or SCs and STs.
Buddhist Converts as Weaker Section
New Buddhist converts are a weaker section. Weaker section
of the people, according to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar's speech
made in Parliament on 12th May 1951, includes the SCs and
STs and means Backward Classes whether socially backward
classes or economically backward classes as construed by Pandit
N ehru and also interpreted by Basu in his commentary on the
Constitution of India, Vol. I, p. 469.
Article 25 of Part III of Constitution of India read "For the
purpose of providing for social welfare and reform [akin to
promoting with special care the educational and economic

interests (rights by Samond) of the weaker sections of the people
in Article 46] the reference to the word 'Hindus' shall be
construed including a reference to persons professing the Sikh,
the Jain or the Buddhist religion. But Jains being Bania and
businessmen and economically and socially better off they do
not need protection in social struggle. Unlike them, the
Buddhists are a weaker section in the social struggle and
struggle for existence and stand in need of all concessions and
facilities and safeguards to be guaranteed by the State under
Constitution as per Articles 25, 46, 330, 335, 15(4) and 16(4)
taken together. Then only will they ~. ': spearhead of the new
movement for creating conditions for the establishment of the
New Indian Society on the principles of justice, liberty, equality
and fraternity.
Thus, before visiting N agpur Dr. Ambedkar said, "If all
communities are to be brought to the level of equality, then,
the only remedy is to adopt the principle of inequality and to
give favoured treatment to those who are below the level. There
will be a general agreement that the needs of the minority for
the political protection are commensurate with the power it has
to protect itself in the social struggle. The lower the educational
and economic status of a minority, the greater will be the need
for its political protection."
The Starte Committee gave some special facilities in
education, reservation and recruitment even before the
inception of the Constitution of India.
Inability of community to protect itself against social
struggle and backwardness of community in education,
economic and social life made it eligible for special protection
and safeguards. With this protection they can give their consent
to be ruled by the politically dominant class.
Caste and social system are to be ruled by democratic
political system. Constitutional principle is based on social
philosophy of justice. Indian constitution in the forms of its
Articles 15(4), 16(4), 25, 46, 330, 335, Burmese constitution in

its Article 35, Irish, American and English Constitutions
accepted this philosophy for their backward sections of society
whether they be in educational-economic-sociallife or/and from
work participation point of view as are SCs/STslWeakerl
Backward classes in India.
New Buddhists are a weaker section socially and
economically as are the SCs and STs or Backward Classes.
Hindu means Hindus, Bu(ldhist, Sikh and Jain communities,
the last being socially protected and the others in need of such
special favour. Then only new society based on equality, liberty,
fraternity and justice will take birth in India.
Treating the Buddhist group as SC/STlWeakerlBackward
section of Indian society His Excellency and Professor Shri
Bhandare dealt with socio-economic, educational, political,
religious and cultural problems of Buddhist community forty
one years ago. He expected those in power and authority to
enable birth of new regenerated society by promoting the
conversion of Indian masses to Buddhism. Buddhist issue of
status and identity is of la.sting character. The Government of
Mal1arashtra recognized the weaker social status of the
converted Buddhist minority and there is need for the national
central Government to follow the suit. Judicial thought of the
world judges would decide in favour of their eligibility for special
favour in above respects. Fundamental rights of citizen,
Directive principles of Constitution and Human Rights
consciousness of the world will not fail in putting the problems
of the Buddhists in the context of those of the social categories
like SC/STs of India.
Are the present Buddhists the members of the earlier
Scheduled Castes? Why the scheduled castes enjoy political,
social, economic and educational safeguards, benefits and
concessions and facilities? Why were the Scheduled Castes
given those special concessions and facilities?
I t is generally accepted that even as all members of one
religion observe same set of religious code of conduct even so
citizens of one nation are supposed to abide by uniform set of
ultimate purposes and pursuits. The SCs similarly observed all

religious rites, festivities, gods and goddesses, scriptures, culture,
and other precepts of Hinduism but despite this they were held
polluting and forced to live in isolation. This treatment has been
revolting against the ultimate national purpose of equality of
status, and promotion of dignity of the individual and the unity
of the nation. Conversion to Buddhism has reversed this
inimical mind-set to fraternity of society under polity of
democracy through Articles 14, 15, 16(1) and (4), 25, 38, 39,
43, 46, 74, 75, 79, 81, 330, 332, and 335 but it has been
confined to the practitioners alone and it has not been
generalised as SC/ST commission also corroborated the facts.
The Buddhist Community: Status and Difficulties
The problem is about the status and difficulties faced by the
Buddhist community even after sixty years of their Independent
nation. From non-Buddhist Hindu point of view they are as
Scheduled Castes as they were untouchables before. However
high aspiring and ennobling attitudes these people held in their
day-to-day lives the others' attitude remained unchanged
despite political upheaval and change of power in Uttar
Pradesh from dominant castes to the Scheduled Castes and
Buddhists. This chapter attempts to highlight the issues in the
changed scenario.
The Buddhist minority problem, as far as it is a material
one, is permanent issue since converts to Buddhism are not
likely to retrace their step, and thus it cannot be left to the sweet
will of any particular department of Government or to the
Cabinet of any particular time. This was made clear by Prof.
R.D. Bhandare's address delivered in Legislative Assembly
Debates, Vol. No. 7, on 25th February 1958, p. 519).
Sukhdeo K. Thorat in his article on 'Economic Status of the
Social Groups in Maharashtra: Emerging Issues' reported trend
in consumption and poverty among the new Buddhists as
under:
Poverty Level
The NSS survey for 1987-88 for the first time also provided
the data for the neo-Buddhists (i.e. scheduled caste converted
to Buddhism). This group constitutes a sizable portion of SC in

the state. The level of poverty was the maximum among neo-
Buddhists (61.50%) followed by 54% among SC and ST. The
poverty level among general population works out to 35.72 per
cent. Assummg that there was a marginal dl~cline in the level
of poverty between 1987-88 and 1993-94 little less than 60 per
cent ofneo-Buddhists may be still below poverty line. (p.7).
Unemployment
He further clarified about unemployment among the SCs
and STs that in the case of unemployment rates based on usual
status there is hardly any difference across social group. In fact
the unemployment rate of SC/ST is slightly lower than other
section in 1977-78 and 1983. This is not surprising as the NSS
treat a person to be usually employed if he or she work for more
than 180 days in a year. Since the SCs have limited alternative
source of income other than wage employment, their
participation in the work around the year would be certainty.
(p. 6).
About how the neo-Buddhists were recorded as Scheduled
Caste members the Census of India 1991 of Maharashtra by
J.K. Banthia, Director of Census Operations, Maharashtra,
Mumbai 1993 stated that "During the enumeration period of
1991 Census, about every individual information was asked
whether he/she belonged to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe
and the information was noted in the concerned Individual Slip.
While recording a person as Schec .lIed Caste, it was ensured
that he/she belonged to Hindu or Sikh or Buddhist or NavINeo
Buddhist religion and the corresponding caste name found place
in the list ofthe scheduled castes (p. xiv).
Summary
Buddhist problems are mainly five namely, (1) persistent
inimical attitude of caste Hindus did not let them live as
dignified Buddhists, (2) Even though the Hindus did not
honour them as their own brethren the Buddhists are not to
revert to their traditional religion unlike tribal converts to
Christianity these days, (3) poverty among Buddhists is worse
than that among SC/ST communities, it is even eighteen times
greater than that existing among general population, (4)
Deeksha Bhoomi of Ambedkar 209
Unemployment among SCs and STs is lower than that among

other sections because working for even as less as for 180 days
a year is also held as employment by NSS in case of only-wage-
dependent persons like SCs, and (5) Buddhists are recorded as
scheduled caste by census operators identifying them by their
prior status of caste found in the list of Scheduled Castes.
Significance of Study
This study will resolve notional problem by underlying the
need of practical measure on the part of political authority.
Political power in the hands of the SCs will create conditions
for social equality, even to the extent of changing Hindu mind-
set. This implied the weak political will power of the present
authority that let the subjected to prolong in subjugation to
poverty and ignorance.
Study area commensurated with the status and problems
of Buddhists of Nagpur. SamplE'''' rv~resented urban and
educated Buddhists with awareness and understanding of the
situations surrounding them. In the year 2006 the Golden
Jubilee of the historical Babasaheb Ambedkar's Deeksha Diwas
Anniversary was pompously and massively celebrated at
Deeksha Bhoomi and its adjacent areas. This was also high time
to assess the changes taking place and taken place already in
the lives of new Buddhist converts of this Nag city. Most of the
sampleR were consulted at the holy pilgrimage of Deeksha
Bhoomi and in the International Buddhist Convention held in
VIP Deshpande hall in front of MLA hostel, N agpur in that
year.
Objective of the Study
This study has been conducted in keeping with the following
main objectives:
1. To know the demographic profile of the Buddhist
minority in Nagpur.
2. To understand the educational development of the
Buddhist minority of N agpur.
3. To underline the social mobility of Buddhist minority
of the area.
4. To highlight the economic advancement of the
Buddhist community after its conversion to Buddhist
fold.
5. To analyse the data collected from the study area and

discover impact of Buddhism on the socio-economic,
cultural, educational, ethical, religious and political life
of minority community in Nagpur, and
6. To draw conclusions based on the data and formulate
suggestions for the inclusion in policies of
implementing agencies.
Time and Budget
Primary data was collected during the 50th Golden Jubilee
anniversary of Dr. Ambedkar's conversion to Buddhism in the
year 2006 and the project was approved by the Head of the
Institute in January 2008. Appropriate area, samples, tools and
techniques were utilised for collecting data and drawing findings
relating to the status and problems of Buddhist minority of
Nagpur.
Growth Rate of Hindu and tribal*, Nagpur District
Mean decennial Mean
Census Hindus growth-rate Animists and decennial
}ear Hindus Tribals growth-rate
Tribals
1 2 J 4 5
1901 6,60976 38,497
1911 7,25,399 9.2 36,003 -6.6
1921 6,92,710 -4.06 52,062 36.4
1931 8,62,519 21.8 9,784 -136.7
1941 9,11,889 5.67 66,471 148.6
1951 11,44,411 22.6 Nil Nil
1961 11,64,247 6,04,500 5,59,747 +1.7
*The population figures are as given by the censuses without regard to the
transfer of territory during the decades.
Animists are another class of people who are not admitted
among Hindus and are therefore suffering from pollution and
seclusion like SCS/STs and Buddhists. The above table shows
that in Nagpur District from the period of 60 years from 1901
to 1961 while Hindus were growing in number the tribal people
were declining and in the year 1961 the tribal occupied less
than half of the population of the Hindus. How this positive
growth of the tribals took place remains unexplained.
Nagpur Population Constituents

People of Nagpur belong to different religious communities
namely Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Jews,
Sikhs, Zoroastrians, etc. The people largely comprise the society
and culture of Nagpur. According to the statistics, the total
number of men and women belonging to the different areas of
Nagpur is 20,95,489 and 19,55,955 respectively. It is estimated
that total urban population of Nagpur is about 21,29,500,
which comprises about 4,10,000 households positioned in
Nagpur. The given statistics included that about 25% of the
total population of N agpur comprised of the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes. To begin with, it can be said that
Hinduism is the predominant religion of N agpur. The N agpur
people are the staunch followers of Hinduism: a large part of
the population of N agpur comprises Hindus. The Hindus in
Nagpur are divided into a number of castes. The Hindu people
in Nagpur are categorized into following castes:
1. Ahirs, 2. Bahana, 3. Badhai, 4. Bhoyer, 5. Brahman, 6.
Chambhar, 7. Dhimar, 8. Dhobi, 9. Govari, 10. Kalar, 11.
Kayastha, 12. Kosti, 13. Kumbhar, 14. Kunbi, and 15. Mali,
etc.
Among the people at Nagpur, Jains community covers a
considerable part of the demographics. Furthermore, the Jains
are divided into Digambars and Svetambars. The Juins in
Nagpur are said to be a set of peace-loving people who avoid
the destruction of animals. Beside the Hindus and Jains, the
people of Nagpur contain Christians, Parsees and Muslims.
Thus, the religion in N agpur presents a distinct pattern:
together with all the religions housed in Nagpur, Nagpur
emerges a cosmopolitan district of Maharashtra being bestowed
with the title ofthe 'winter capital of Maharashtra'.
Nagpur culture is an amalgamation of the various cultures
prevalent within India. Nagpur culture is a cosmopolitan culture
that projects the faiths and beliefs of different communities. The
culture of Nagpur boasts of many different religions and
beliefs.
Summary
The SCs and STs of Nagpur formed the 25 per cent of the
total-population of the area surrounded by about 75 per cent
of the Hindus. Except for the small body mainly of Banias who
follow Jainism the Hindus of the district belong to two main
classes: (1) Brahmanic Hindus including Brahmans and other
castes who worship Brahmanic gods, and employ Brahmans as
their priests; (2) low-caste and tribal Hindus who mainly
worship non-Brahmanic and animistic deities. This shows that
25 per cent of the SCs and STs are included among the Hindus
despite the fact that their culture and religion are different
from them.
If the Buddhists were enumerated as Hindus for the year
1961 their combined population which numbers 13,98,359 forms
92.4 per cent of the district population. It shows an increase of
111.5 per cent over the Hindu population of 1901 and a mean
decennial growth rate 19.9 per cent over the Hindu population
of 1951. This means that 2,34,112 Buddhists of the city were
recorded as Hindus in 1961. They also are different from the
Hindus from cultural and religious point of view. Buddhists are
also included amongst the Buddhists. This is not strange but
in keeping with the Central Government's strategy to include
Buddhists among the SCs for social purpose of giving
constitutional special favour to them.
Hindu Castes
The Hindu community is found divided into various socially
differentiated groups better known as castes. In consonance
with the changes in government policy, the census enumeration
has eased to take cognizance ofthese groups since 1941. There
were ninety or more castes enumerated in the district in 1931.
Of these the most numerous castes in the district in 1931 were
the Kunbis, the Mehras or Mahars, the Telis, the Gonds, the
Kostis, the Brahmans, the Malis, the Dhimars, the Govaris, and
j he Barhais who constituted respectively about 19, 17, 8.5, 5.6,
5, 4, 3.6, 2.5, 23 and 1.6 per cent of the population.

Speaking generally about these castes the old District
Gazetteer of Nagpur (1908) states: The most numerous castes
in the district are the Kunbis constituting 20 per cent of the
population, and the Mahars or Mehras 16 per cent. Brahmans
are the largest proprietors and own 750 villages or a third of
the total number and next to them come Kunbis with 440. The
bulk of the population are of Marathi extraction, but in the

north of the district there is a fair sprinkling of Kirars, Lodhis
and Raghvis, who have come down from the Satpuda plateau,
and these are the best agriculturists. Gonds are the only forest
tribe, constituting 6 per cent of the population, but many of
them have taken to work in the mines, and as coolies and
porters in towns, and except in features are hardly
distinguishable from Hindus. The remainders live principally
in the tracts adjoining the Satpuda hills to the north.
Thus, the Mahar caste constituted 17 per cent of the
population of the Nagpur area in 1931. This percentage is more
than or at least equal to percentage of SCs and Buddhists to
the total population of Maharashtra state.
Marriage Custom among Hindus
Dharmasastra considers that it is obligatory for every person
to marry, as, according to it vivaha (marriage) is one of the
sansamskaras (sacraments sanctifying the body) through each
of which every man and woman must pass at the proper age
and time. But, though marriage is thus universally prescribed
for all Hindus, the institution as such is hedged with several
rules and restrictions which fall under two main heads, namely,
endogamy and exogamy.
Marriage can be the most effective measures for bindinng
the divided society by caste but this is not practised to the
desired extent.
The Hindu marriage system is a system of prohibition on
the basis of caste, subcaste, gotra, father's line and mother's
line of degree of relationship despite the fact that cross-cousin
marriages and niece-unle marriages are practised among the
Brahmanas of the region.
Summary
The system of Hypergamy divides superior and inferior
classes of people on the basis of gender and inviting dowry from
female party to the male one as practised among the Brahmins,
Marathas and Rajputs. When equality of persons is lost all
distortions in contracting marriages followed.
Polygyny
Hinduism permits polygyny (The state of having more than
one wife at a time is more aptly descnbed a 'polygyny' than
'polyg amy'.) The Smrtis not only prescr ibe, that a man who has
entere d grhast hasram a must not remai n single and should take
anoth er wife withou t delay to keep up religio us rites, but also
ask to take anothe r wife during the lifetim e of the first one who
had no son. But even then polygy ny has been practi sed throug h
the ages only by a few people . A Kunbi would take a second
wife only if the first was childle ss or a bad charac ter, or destitu te
of attract ions. Polygy ny was very rare among the Bania s and
it was genera lly the rule that a man must have obtain ed the
consen t of his first wife before taking a second one. Simila rly,
among the Kaika dis, the consen t of the first wife must have
been obtain ed to the taking of a second . In recent years, the
spread of Englis h educa tion and assimi lation of moder n liberal
ideas, have made almos t all comm unitie s among the Hindu s
monog amous , thoug h a few isolate d cases, of polygy ny could
not be ruled out. Howev er, the Hindu Marria ge Act of 1955 has
now compl etely reform ed the law relatin g to Hindu marria ge
all over India and has made monog amy compu lsory among all
classe s of Hindu s.
For bringi ng equal ity of perso ns in Indian societ y Dr.
Ambe dkar had introd uced the comm on Hindu Code Bill for
which the Pt. Nehru as first Premi er of India also comm itted
himse lf to take it throug h the parlia ment but alas! conser vative
pressu re suppre ssed the voice of equali ty and Dr. Ambe dkar had
resign ed from his portfo lio of Law Minis ter in the year 1951.
Accor ding to the code bill no Hindu could have second wife as
long as first wife was alive.
Dowr y
In Hindu religio us books are enume rated eight forms of
marria ge, i.e., metho ds of conse cratin g a marria ge-un ion of
which , in moder n times only two are in vogue, viz., the brahm a
and the asura. Confo rming with the brahm a form of marria ge
genera lly among the higher castes , a hunda (dowr y-prop erty
which a woma n brings to her husba nd) is paid by the bride's
paren ts to the brideg room. Amon g lower castes , the bride's
paren ts usuall y take dej (bride -price) thereb y confor ming with
the asura form. The monet ary aspect in the settlem ent of a
marria ge may take, variou s forms, e.g., among the Marat has,
in a salankrta kanyadan, the bride's father, besides the

ornaments he gives to his daughter, spends on many items of
expenses on both the sides; in kanyadana, the expenses of the
bride's father are much restricted; in varapaksa-vadhupaksa,
the parties bear their own expenses, stand each other's manpan
and the groom's party gives a rasbhog (feast) to all the villagers;
in the hunda form the girl's father pays bridegroom-price to the
boy's father, while in the dej form, as the proposal of the
marriage comes from the boy's father, he has to pay a dej (bride-
price) to the girl's father.
As long as dowry exists the plight of women is bound to
aggravate. Whether Brahma method or Asura method either
is dowry-maintaining mechanism. Bride's parents giving money
to groom is Brahma method and pride's parent taking money
from groom's parents is called Asura method. Both are evil
methods. And Brahma one is more so.
Marriage Enactments
Social usage in relation to Hindu marriage has been
considerably affected by various legal enactments passed,
perhaps right from 1833 when the regulation prohibiting sati
was declared, (1) A common form of civil marriage for all
communities in India was provided by the Special Marriage Act
III of 1872, which made it possible for an Indian of whatever
caste or creed to enter into a valid marriage with a person
belonging to any caste or creed, provided the parties registered
the contract of marriage, declaring inter alia that they did not
belong to any religion (Ghurye G.S., Caste and Class in India
(1950), p.165.). This Act was amended by Act XXX of 1923,
making it possible for Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains (but
not for Christians, Jews, Mahavardans and Parsees) to declare
their religion and yet get their marriage registered, (2) The
Child Marriage Restraint Act XIX of 1929) as amended by Act
19 of 1946 prohibited marriages of boys under 18 years of age,
and girls under 14 years of age, (3) The Hindu Marriage
Disabilities Removal Act XXVIII of 1946 validated marriages
between parties (a) belonging to the same gotra or (b)
belonging to different sub-divisions of the same caste; and now
(4) The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 which abrogates and

modifies all the past laws. It has made Hindu marriage now
strictly adult and monogamous; has done away with the caste
and gotra restrictions which limited the field of marriage; and
has set down definite conditions under which a degree of nullity
and further of dissolution of marriage could be obtained.
As marriage from the Hindu point of view created an
indissoluble tie between the husband and the wife, divorce was
not known to the general Hindu law. Neither party to a
marriage could, therefore, divorce the other unless divorce was
allowed by custom. The Indian Divorce Act, 1869 provided inter
alia for dissolution of marriage, but it applied only to cases
where "the petitioner or respondent professed the Christian
religion" (S. 2 of the Act). However, according to the Hindu
Marriage Act, 1955, reliefs by way of judicial separation,
declaration of nullity of marriage and divorce are recognized
(Ss. 10 to 13).
This was to take place earlier than the year 1950 had the
Hindu Code Bill been adopted by the Indian parliamentarians.
The said code bill was adopted by the Buddhists as their own
method of marriage as is evident from Maharashtrian MLA Dr.
Nitin Raut-prepared and circulated brochure on Buddhist
Marriage Act.
Fertility
On national level the fertility rate is 2.81 children born!
woman as per 2007 estimate. The TFR (Total number of
children born per women) according to Religion in 2001 was :
Hindus -2.27, Muslims - 3.06, Sikhs - 1.86, Christians - 2.06,
Buddhists - 2.29, Jains - 1.50 , Animists and Others- 2.99,
Tribals - 3.16, and Scheduled Castes - 2.89. This shows that
Muslim, Animist and others, Tribals and SCs have more fertility
rate than that of the national level.
Studies reveal that among the urbanised citizens ofNagpur
Teachers form the highest group followed by Doctors and
Engineers. It is needless to stress that in our samples also we
have found professional and technically qualified respondents
including scholars, teachers, doctors, engineers and literates
Deeksha Bhoorni of Arnbedkar 217
above the level of matriculation. Rural Nagpur is backward in

educational categories and they are members of the Hindu
castes, among whom the Mahars are influenced by the teaching
of Buddha and Dr. Ambedkar enabling theIr.. to migrate to
urban areas and get education and services. Prof. Bhandare
in his booklet entitled The Problems of the Indian Buddhists
(Mumbai 1966) explained that the philosophy behind
reservation and safeguards was originally intended not for any
religious group but exclusively for such masses of people who
suffered from difficulties and disabilities, on account of the
factors of pollution and isolation. And Buddhists are such people
beside the SCs and STs, who continue to suffer from them and
are compelled to live in a state of isolation and segregation and
are therefore quite powerless and miserable. Indian constitution
covers these provisions to establish political, economic and social
democracies. (ibid. pp. 26-27).
Religious Demography from 1951-61 to 1991-2001 and
Political Consequences
Prof. C.D. Naik opined that in every village Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes are surrounded by Hindu majority
people. Buddhists also are more vulnerable to local situation
even though their number increased on national reckoning in
general and Maharashtra State and Nagpur District in
particular.
According to the census of 1961 the total population of the
Maharashtra State was 3,95,53,718, out of which the total
population of the Scheduled Castes was 22,26,914 (5.62 per
cent) and that of the Scheduled Tribes was 23,97,159 (6.06 per
cent) and that of the new converts to Buddhism was 27,89,501
(7.07 per cent). Thus the demographic change of percentage of
Buddhists compared to SCs and STs was a new phenomenon
and it existed only in Maharashtra due to conversion
movement.
As for the population by religion in the year 1951 ann 1961,
the following table is illustrative.
For the decade between 1951 and 1961
Name of Population in Percentage in Increase in Increase in

community million 1951 population in percentage
in 1951 million in in 1961
1961
Buddhist 0.2 0.1 3.3 0.7

Christian 8.4 2.4 10.7 2.4
Hindu 303.6 85.0 366.5 83.5
Jain 1.6 0.4 2.0 0.5
Muslim 35.4 9.9 46.9 10.7
Sikh 6.2 1.7 7.8 1.8
Other 1.8 0.5 1.6 0.4
Total 357.3 100 438.9 100
Source: The Statistical Outline ofIndia, Table 10, Tata Industries Private
Ltd, p. 12.
The numerical strength of the various religious communities
and sects in the district as returned by the Census of 1961 is
as under:
UrbanlRural population of Religious Communities
in Nagpur District, 1961
Urban Rural
S.N. Community Males Females Males Females
(1) Parsees (Persons 840) 487 353

(2) Buddhists 57,73 54,856 61,084 0,199
(3) Christians 6,744 6,265 358 322
(4) Hindus 3,04,661 2,69,049 2,99,839 2,90,698
(5) Jains 3,258 3,082 615 567
(6) Jews 15 28
(7) Muslims 41,047 35,762 5,750 5,505
(8) Sikhs 2,106 1,773 86 43
(9) Zorostrians 487 353
(10) Tribals 86 73
(11) Non-Tribals 2
(12) Religion not stated 24 56 28 13
Thtal 4,16,401 3,71,299 3,67,760 3,57,347

These include 54,388 (m. 27,906; f. 26,482) belonging to

Scheduled Castes; no person has been returned as belonging
to Scheduled Tribes, but 159 (m. 86; f. 73) are separately
returned as Tribals.
In 1951, under the head of 'Other religions' were shown
'Tribals' and 'Non-Tribals'; the district had then no 'tribals'; the
Non-tribal religions included 38 (m. 25; f. 13), Khojas, 15. (m.
12; f. 3) Bohoras and 8 (m. 8; f.-) Kabirpanthis.
The following Census data for the year 1991 throws light
on social, economic, genderic and educational conditions of Dalit
Buddhists.
se Population 1991
SC population increased in 1991 compared to earlier
censuses because according to the Constitution of India, SCs
could belong to only Hindus and Sikh (Jains not mentioned. It
may be because in N agpur the J ains are nearly all Marvadi
Banias and are engaged in trade and banking; Consequently
they are much wealthier than other castes) religions and not
to Buddhism but, as a result of the Constitution (Scheduled
Castes) Orders (Amendment) Act 1990 those SCs who returned
their religion as Buddhist or NavlNeo Buddhist have also
become eligible in Maharashtra to be enumerated as Scheduled
Castes along with 'Hindus' and 'Sikh' provided their caste name
found place in the list of the SC applicable to the state in which
they were being enumerated.
During the last decade ST population has increased by 0.08
points only. A member of a ST may belong to any religion. A
person will be reckoned as belonging to ST only if in hislher
tribe name appeared in the list of STs applicable to the State.
Primary Census Abstracts for SC/ST began to be presented
since 1981 along with PCA for general population but these
special PCAs for SC/ST will not be presented at the village
level. Nor will they present information as to area and number
of occupied residential houses. The following table shows some
information regarding SC/ST in State, Nagpur District-Urban!
Rural with gender and work classification.
Percentage of SC/ST population in State and District

se in State in se in Nagpur ST in State in STinNagpur
% District in % % District in %
11.9 18.84 9.27 13.92
Source: Census Report 1991.

Explanation: Out of thirty districts of Maharashtra,
N agpur has the highest percentage of SC/ST population.
Although SC population is concentrated in rural areas of all
the districts of Maharashtra it is not so in Nagpur district unlike
ST population. Thus, conversion to Buddhism has urbanizing
impact on SCs of the district. Percentage of SC population to
total population in Nagpur District is 18.84 in 1991 while it was
only 7.05 in 1881. In Nagpur District as in every other district
percentage of se population has increased.
Percentage of Literacy rate for SCs and STs
State Average se se Literacy Rate in ST Literacy Rate in
Literacy Rate in % Nagpur District in % Nagpur District in %
56.46 71.08 36.78

Explanation: Thus it is obvious from above table that SC
literacy rate in Nagpur is higher than state average and that
of ST literacy rate also.
Work Participation of SC and ST
Work Work Work Work

Participation Participation of se Participation Participation of
of se in State in Nagpur of ST in State ST in Nagpur
in % District in % in % District in %
42.82 35.95 52.23 42.81

Explanation: Work participation rate of SCs for Nagpur
District has been lower than that of State average and that of
ST work participation in the District also. Occupational
Classification ofSC/ST in Nagpur and Main Workers in primary
sector services are as under:
Occupational classification of 8Cs & 81's I

As Agricultural Labourers In Other Services In Liuestock etc.
SC ST SC in Other ST in Other SC in ST in
Agricultural Agricultural Services than S;>rvices than livestock, livestock,
",
Labourers in Labourers in primary primary forestry, forestry,
Nagpur Nagpur sector in sector in hunting, hunting,
District in % District in % Nagpur in % Nagpur in % plantation, plantation,
orchard, orchard,
allied allied
activities in activities in
Nagpur in % Nagpur in %
26.40 35.44 17.98 9.43 1.41 2.31
Occupational Classification of SCs and 81's 11
In Household Industry In Mining and Quarrying Transport, trade and commun
SC in ST in SC in Mining ST in Mining SC in ST in
Household Household and Quarrying and Quarrying Transport, Transport,
Industry in Industry in in Nagpur in Nagpur trade and trade and
Nagpur Nagpur District in % District in % communi ca- communi ca-
District in % District in % tion tion
in Nagpur in Nagpur
in% in%
1.63 6.16 2.48 1.88 8.45 4.10
Occupational Classification of SCs and 81's HI
In Trade and Commerce In Construction In CultIVation
SC ID Trade ST in Trade SC in ST in SC in 8T in
and and Construction Construction Cultivation Cultivation
Commerce Commerce in in Nagpur in Nagpur in Nagpur in Nagpur
In Nagpur Nagpur District in % District in % District in %District in %
District in % District in %
"
8.50 7.45 8.68 4.70 12.63 18.30

Explanation: In Nagpur se main workers are mostly
engaged in agricultural labour and in other than primary sector
services. ST workers are mostly engaged in primary sector as

shown in the above table.
State and District se Sex Ratio
State State State State to Nagpur Nagpur Nagpur Nagpur
oc se Sex se Sex se Sex se Sex se Sex se Sex se Sex
Sex Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio
Ratio among among among per among among among
Per total main marginal 1000 total main marginal
1000 workers workers workers males workers workers workers
males
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
944 695 601 5145 935 485 442 2324
Source.' Census Report 1991.

State and District ST Sex Ratio
State State State State Nagpur Nagpur Nagpur Nagpur

sr STSex STSex STSex STSex STSex STSex STSex
Sex Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio
Ratio among among among per among among among
Per total main marginal 1000 total main marginal
1000 workers workers workers males workers workers workers
males
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
968 879 742 7970 940 598 4035

State General population sex ratio
State State
General General
Sex Sex
Ratio Ratio
Among among
Total main
Workers workers
1 2
593 482

Explanation: Higher sex ratio among marginal workers

indicate preponderance of females over males. Compared to
general population total and main workers sex ratio SC sex ratio
for those classes is much higher and ST sex ratio for the same
is the highest. This accounted for lower status of women in
Hindu society. As for the Dalit Buddhists equality of men and
women is the principle of associated living among all Buddhists
whether in Nagpur, India or abroad.
Classification of SC population of Nagpur in household,
persons, gender, infants and literacy
SC SC Persons Males Females Persons of Literates

Households Age 0-6
1 2 3 4 5 6
1,24,180 6,19,226 3,19,940 2,99,286 1,00,349 3,68,656

Classification of SC population of Nagpur in primary
sector and other works
1btalmain Cultivators Agro- Livestock etc. Mining and Manufacturing

Workers of labourers Quarrying etc. in
Category I-IX household
7 8 9 10 11 12
2,11,171 26,667 55,749 2976 5245 3433

Classification of SC population of Nagpur in primary
Manufacturing Construe- 7hufe and Transport, Other Marginal Non-

etc. in other tions Corn.rnerce Storage and Services as Workers Workers
thnn Communica- public
household lion utility etc.
industry
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
25001 18,323 17,956 17,846 37,975 11,454 3,96,601

Explanation: In the above primary census Abstract table
reference to main worker means one who engaged in any
economically productive activity for 183 days or six months or
more uuring the year preceding the date of enumeration.

Primary sector I-IX occupations are (1) Cultivators, (2)
Agricultural Labourers, (3) Workers in livestock, forestry,
fishing, hunting and plantations, orchard and allied activities,
(4) Mining and quarrying, (5a) Manufacturing, Processing and
repairs in household industry, (5b) Manufacturing, processing,
servicing and repairs in other than household industry, (6)
Constructions, (7) Trade and Commerce, (8) Transport, storage
and communication. The other services include public utility
services like electricity or gas or water supply, sanitary services;
central, state or municipal employees, professional services;
trade or labour associations, recreational services etc. and non-
workers refer to those who had not worked at all any time in
the year preceding the date of enumeration.
Classification by Nagpur (U.A.) and Nagpur Corporation
Classification of ST population of Nagpur Corporation in
Household, persons, gender, infants and literacy
SC SC Males Females Persons of Literates

Households Persons Age 0·6
1 2 3 4 5 6
UA 62,671 3,25,102 1,68,008 1,57,094 51,241 2,07,984

Corp 6,0577 3,15,640 51,241 2,01,829
Classification of ST population of Nagpur in primary

Total Main Cultivators Agm· Livestock Milling and Manufac·

Workers of labourers etc. Quarrying turing
Category I-IX etc. in
household
Industry
7 8 9 10 11 12
88,092 327 658 957 582 1,113

85,351 317 646 940 577 1,102
Source: Census Report 1991

Classification of ST population of Nagpur in primary

M={ac- Construc- Trade and Transport, Other MargiTU.I1 Non-

tunngetc. tions Commerce Storage Services Workers Workers
in other and as public
than Communi.ca- utility
household tion etc.
industry
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
UA 15,516 13,598 14,019 14,763 26,559 2,286 2,34,724

Corp 14,438 13,251 13,778 14,487 25,815 2,216 2,28,073

Explanation: From the above table it is seen that Nagpur
urban are? SCs in above c?+egories stand higher than they are
in these re:::.pect in Nagpur Corporation.
Buddhist Population
In 1951, there were only 149 (m. 63; f. 86) Buddhists but
their number had increased to 2,34,112 (m. 1,19,057; f.
1,15,055) in 1961. This sudden increase of the Buddhists was
obviously due to the return of a large number from the
'Scheduled Castes', particularly from the Mahars, of 1951 as
Buddhists (Neo Buddhists) in 1961. The 'Scheduled Castes' who
numbered 2,23,546 in 1951 have decreased by 1,89,158 in
1961. Many of them who might have been returned as
Buddhists (Neo Buddhists) are shown as forming a community
separate from that of the Hindus.
According to 1991 census total Indian population was 836
million, out of which were 130 million SCs, 60 million STs, and
424 million OBCs. The Buddhists were 0.76% of total
population. SCs were 15%. Total population of Buddhists was
6.3 million. There are 25 states and Union Territories where
Buddhists, are less than 1%, and 16 districts have not a single
Buddhist. Maharashtra has 6.39% Buddhists.
Then only the North East (excluding Assam and Nagaland)
has an average of about 5 per cent of traditional Buddhist
population, Himachal 1.24% - perhaps due to Dalai'Lama, top
most is Sikkim with 27.18%. Laddakh is not mentioned. The
States of Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Haryana, u.P., Gujarat, Kerala, Orissa, Punjab and surprisingly
Nagaland and Assam has negligible population of Buddhists.
Concentrating only on Maharashtra, we find that Mahars
are 6.45 per cent, non-Mahar SCs are 4.64% and registered
Buddhists are 6.39 of total population. Nine Districts of
Vidarbha and three of Marathwada only have more than
average of 6.39 per cent, Akola being highest of 16.79%.
Mumbai has first highest number (5,57,089) and Nagpur
district second highest (4,93,208) numberl.
Mahars
Mahars or Mehras formed about 17 per cent (1931) of the
population. "Looked down upon as outcastes by the Hindus,
they are hampered by no sense of dignity or family prejudice.
They are fond of drinking but are also hard workers. They turn
their hands to anything and every thing, but the great majority
of them are agricultural labourers. If there is only one well in
the village he may not use it but has to get his water supply
from where he can. His sons are consigned to a corner in the
village school and the schoolmaster, if not superior to caste
prejudices, discourages their attendance. Nevertheless Mahars
will not remain for years down-trodden in this fashion and are
already pushing themselves up from this state of degradation.
In some places they have combined to dig wells and in Nagpur
have opened a school for members of their own community
(Nagpur Settlement Report, para 58.) Occasionally a Mahar is
the most prosperous man in the village. Several of them are
money-lenders in a small way and a few are malguzars.
A large number of the Mahars have turned to Buddhism
following the lead given by Dr. Ambedkar and call themselves
as neo-Buddhists. In schools, colleges and in Government
services a number of seats are reserved for them and economic
aid is given. Conscious and painstaking efforts by social workers
to create a proper social attitude as also by the members of their
own community to come up in various spheres have helped to
overcome the former prejudices, and a new trend has begun.
SC/ST Commission's observation on Status of SCs and
STs
According to SC/ST Commission report of 1958-59 and
1960-61 the following facts were observed:
Deeksha Bhoom i ofAmbed kar 227
1. As many as 56.75 per cent SCs and STs experi enced
discrim ination in regard to seatin g arrang ement and
use of comm on utensi ls.
2. 56.8 per cent of respon dents expres sed hesita tion in
visitin g public places becaus e of resent ment of caste
Hindu s.
3. 31.4 per cent respon dents would not visit public places
becaus e of their economic depend ence.
4. The religio us isolati on of SC/ST s still persis ts in
consid erable degre e which is obvio us from the
compa rative ly smalle r percen tage of non-H arijan s
associ ating the SCS/STs in religio us activit ies.
5. The degree of aware ness of untouc habilit y (Offences)
Act has been found to be higher among non-H arijan
respon dents i.e. 77.7 per cent as compa red to the SC/
ST respon dents among whom it was found to be 66.6
per cent.
6. The evil of untou chabi lity exists amon g the
untou chabl es thems elves and 18.3 per cent
respo ndent s admit ted practi sing untou chabi lity
agains t lower castes .
7. Based on religio n the ordina ry Hindu only relaxe s the
rules ofunto uchab ility where he canno t observ e them.
He never aband ons them, for the aband onmen t of
untouc habilit y to him involv es a total aband onmen t
of the basic religio us tenets of Hindu s. Based on
religio n, untou chabiI ity will prese nt as all other
religio us notion s have done.
Notio nal Remo val of Untou chabi lity
In additio n to above Prof. Bhand are also pointe d out that
althou gh the rigour s of pollut ion have been loosen ed and
lessen ed to some exten t under the mode rn condi tions
untouc habiIi ty in its notion al aspect is not chang ed to any
extent at all (p. 11). As for conver sion it has to be said that Dr.
Ambe dkar conve rted himse lf to Buddh ism becaus e of his genius
desire and urge for the spiritu al and cultur al resurg ence and
regene ration . He and his followers conve rted to Buddh ism to
chang e their outloo k and notion al aspect rooted in irratio nal
dogma of caste and untouc habilit y of Hindu ism. This does not
chang e the attitud e and notion of the Hindu s toward s conve rts
though .
Compared to the scheduled castes the Buddhists are in worse

political position because of the wrong construction and
misunderstanding of the real nature, scope and purpose of the
special provisions incorporated in the constitution of India and
also the basic principles underlying the principles of social justice
and economic justice adumberated in the constitution of India
(p.16).
New converts to Buddhism should be allowed to have
reservations, political, social and economic which are
contemplated and given to the scheduled castes and the
scheduled tribes under the constitution of India and also other
. concessions and facilities to enable them to derive benefits
arising out of these reservations and concessions and facilities
under the principle of social justice. (Bhandare, ibid. p. 24).
In pursuence of the recommendation of the Indira Gandhi
Committee, the Prime Minister on September 25 to October 1,
1961 called a National Integration Conference to which
representatives of all major political parties, educationists,
scientists ar.d social workers were invited. In spite of these
important measures, the popular mind is apt to comprehend and
interpret the problem in a very narrow sense that the problem
mainly concerns adjustment among communities professing
various faiths or speaking different languages.
The most important aspects of the problem of national
integration are the integration of the Scheduled Castes with
the Caste Hindu society and that of the tribals with the general
population of the country. Untouchability is an extreme form
of caste ism and therefore, quickest ways have to be devised to
do away with both simultaneously.
According to Prof. Bhandare there was some change in the
attitude towards untouchability in its literal sense (ibid. p. 10).
But Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar said (Note on Indian Franchise
Committee Report 1932, Vol. I, p. 204), "If this is a correct
statement of the facts of the life, then the difference between
untouchability in its literal and notional sense is a distinction
witch makes no difference to the ultimate situation, for (as the
extract from the Census Report 1921, of Bihar and Orissa
shows) untouchability in its notional sense persists even where
untouchability in its literal sense has ceased to obtain. This is

why I insist that the test of untouchability must be applied in
its notional sense."
In his note of dissent submitted to the IndIan Franchise
Committee Dr. Ambedkar explained that "The system of caste
and the system of untouch ability form really the steel-frame of
the Hindu society. This division cannot easily be wiped out for
the simple reason that it is not based upon rational, economic
and racial grounds. On the other hand the chances are that
untouchability will endure for long into the future than the
optimist reformer is likely to admit on account of the fact that
it is based on religious dogma."
Buddhist Population Growing in India
One reason for the current interest in Buddhism is the
success of those who became Buddhists in the past. 72.7% have
a basic education compared with the national average of
52.21 % and the community is increasingly confident, self reliant
and free from negative social norms. The new Buddhists refuse
to work within the ritually polluting and ritually duties
traditionally associated with their caste, such as handling dead
bodies: a strategy that works when people are able to find
alternative employment outside the village. However, even if
new Buddhists are successful in joining upon ritually more or
less neutral professions, they are looked down2•
Demographic Information of Population
Census information for 2001
Composition Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others
2 3 4 5 6 7
% total of
population 80.4% 13.4% 2.2% 1.9% 1.1% 0.4% 0.5%
2005
10-Yr
Growth% (est 20.3% 29.5% 22.6% 18.2% 24.5% 26.0%103.1%
'91-'01)
Sex ratio* (avg. 935 940 1009 895 955 940 100
944)
Composition Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others
2 3 4 5 6 7
Literacy rate 75.5 60.0 90.3 70.4 73.0 95.0 50.0

(avg.79.9)
Work
Participation 40.4 31.3 39.7 37.7 40.6 32.9 48.4
Rate
Rural sex ratio 944 953 1001 895 958 937 995
Urban sex ratio 922 907 1026 886 944 941 966
Child sex ratio 925 950 964 786 942 870 976
(0-6 yrs)
Source: The First Report on Religion: Census of India 200l.
According to 2001 Census Hindu (82.5%), Muslim (11.4%),
Christian (2.31%), Buddhists (0.8%), Sikh (1.93%), Jains
(0.41%), and others or not stated (0.76%) formed the religious
classification of Indian population.
Mandar Phanse, CNN-IBN described that according to the
2001 census there are 7.95 million Buddhists in India out of a
population of 1 billion, making it the country's fifth-largest
religion. The true figure is far higher - between 20-30 m~llion,
but many do not register as Buddhists for fear of losing
government concessions that are due to low-status Hindus. "We
have 405 New-Buddhists in our village, 69 from the Matang
community, they say there were only 105 of us in 1991 and in
2001 census, we are not there. This means we don't get any
relief or benefit from government. We are supposed to get 20
per cent of the Panchayat budget of Rs. 3 lakh per year". -
Census wipes out dalits in Maharashtra. These Buddhists
include a number of groups. There are scattered survivors of
the period when Buddhism flourished in India such as the
Baruas of Assam, Chakmas of Bengal, the Saraks of Orissa and
the Himalayan Buddhists of North-East India; there are also
ethnic overlaps from Nepal, Thailand and Burma, such as
Tamangs and Sherpas, there are converts who have been
influenced by the Maha Bodhi Society, the Dalai Lama and so
on; and there are refugee Tibetan Buddhists in different
settlements. Finally they are the followers of Dr. Ambedkar, who
constitute over 90% India's Buddhists.
Every year Dalits and Buddhists gather at Nagpur to

remember 14th Oct 1956 conversion event. They number
anywhere from 8,00,000 to 10,00,000. According to solar
calendar, this is the day when Dr Ambedkar led the biggest
conversion sans bloodshed or allurement in the history of the
world. On that day alone, around 5,00,000 Dalits had converted
to Buddhism leaving behind the cobwebs of caste ridden Hindu
society.
Media Black out on Dalit News
In the year 2006, an estimated 2 million, yes, a whopping
20,00,000 people gathered from across the world to mark the
50th year of Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din on 2nd October!
According to local reports, some 2,00,000 Buddhist Bhikkhus
(Monks) wearing saffron clothes, forming a 6 km long chain ,-
took the procession turning the entire orange city into saffron
and blue. The Celebrations lasted for more than a week.
Now, for an Indian media that is always looking for
something sensational - that's a huge gathering, isn't it? And
how many white collar Journalists holding Handy Cams from
the leading electronic media turn up, including your own?
None! Reason?
Like the Upper caste villagers boycott Dalits in villages, their
caste Hindu counterparts in the media boycott almost
everything that is related to Dalits. Ghatkopar, Seoni, Jajjhar,
Kherlanji - the shame continues!
Crime against Dalits
On Sep 29, in one of the most gruesome and dreadful
incidents of Dalit atroC-ities, Bhaiyyalal / Bhotmange, a Dalit-
Buddhist farmer in Kherlanji (Bhandara, Maharashtra)
witnessed his wife Surekha (44), daughter Priyanka (18), sons,
Roshan, 23, and Sudhir, 21 being killed by the Landlords in
front of the villagers. Worst, the mother and daughter were first
paraded naked; gang raped, and then sticks were pushed into
their private parts. The sons were stabbed repeatedly and their
private parts mutilated. And what was their fault? Surekha had
dared to fight for getting back a portion of their farm, which
was grabbed by the landlords.
India's National Crime Records Bureau working under the
jurisdiction of Ministry of Home Affairs has reported that in the
year 2005 alone, 26,127 crimes were committed against SC/STs

including 1172 rape against Dalit women and 669 cases of
Murder (Reference: http://ncrb.nic.in). To summarise, every day,
while three Dalit women are raped and two Dalits are
murdered, two Dalit homes get torched. If you add to this the
thousands of unreported cases, the picture is abysmally
inconceivable 3 !
Handover to Buddhist Management the Mahabodhi
Mahavihar : A Request
We therefore request the UN to activate the convention
concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage (UNESCO) adopted on 16th November 1972 and
entered into force on 17th Dec. 1974. It was ratified by 159
countries including India. The convention provides that the
heritage committee shall supervise the protection of items
recognised by the convention as those of outstanding universal
value from the point of view of history, art, science and
aesthetics. We also request the United Nations to direct India
to obey the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) on
the rights of persons belonging to national, ethnic, religious or
linguistic minorities and handover entire managemant of
Mahabodhi Mahavihara by suitable amendment to the Bodh
Gaya Temple Act 1949 (Bihar Act of 17th of 1949) - (as modified
up to 8th Feb. 1955) and help prevent confrontation between
the Buddhist and Hindu Brahmins over the issue of Mahabodhi
Mahavihar. With profound regards. Yours truly, (Bhadant Arya
Nagarjuna Shurei Sasai)4.
World Conference Against Racism: Indian Govt Stand
Under the title "UN Prepcom for WCAR, Geneva May 1-5,
2000 and Dalit "Traitors" Yogesh Varhade classified the Dalits
into two categories namely (i) Honest and (2) Dishonest. This
is clear from his letter cited below: To Dalit Warriors around
the Globe: Jaibhim!
I just returned from Geneva UN Prepcom for World
Conference Against Racism (to be held in September 2001). In
the last 10 years of participation of Ambedkar Centre for Justice

and Peace at many UN forums to highlight our problem, I never
found that India was ever interested in promoting Dalit
activists, scholars etc.
To my great surprise for this Prepcom for World Conference
Against Racism at Geneva, India (indirectly financed and)
supported the Dalit Delegation to attack our efforts to address
the major workshop on "Casteism".'India uses International
Institute of Non-Aligned Studies and Indian Council of
Education as fronts to voice its policy. The "Traitors" among the
Dalits were sponsored by these organizations.
Among the Dalit Activists Groups participated were:
Ambedkar Centre for Justice and Peace-Yogesh Varhade Dalit
Solodarity Forum - Mr. Paul Diwakar, Ruth Manorama, Henry
Thagraj, Martin Macwan, Priest Yesu from TN, Mimroth lawyer
from Rajasthan working in Delhi Dalit Media Network -
Dr. Sridhar, TN Human Rights Watch-Smita Narula.
Ms. Meira Kumar said in her intervention" ...there is no real
problem in India on Caste System since the laws are in place
and there are strong constitutional provisions. It is the creation
of the west that there is a problem (ofuntouchability and caste
system)." She refused to circulate the copy of her intervention
when asked by NGOs.
Mr. Pakhiddey and Choudhary, Narang, Tamata
participated in the NGOs workshop discussion on themes for
Asia-Pacific and Middle East Regional Workshop.
Mr. Martin Macwan and Ruth Manorama did the
intervention on behalf of Dalit groups. I could not do the
statement as I went through Canadian NGO, with ~onsultative
status, who had 12 other delegates to intervene. Dr. Shridhar,
a young doctor, activist in Dalit Media Network, from TN also
did intervention on Dalit issue. Smita Narula, Human Rights
Watch did the same on behalf of her NGO.
In NGO Forum I insisted that since the Caste System and
Practice of Untouch ability affects quarter billion population, it
is the largest and biggest discrimination, segregation,
destitution on Earth and it must have major theme and

workshop at Regional Prepcom in Tehran before final World
Conference in South Africa. Anything less will not be acceptable.
DSF Paul Diwakar, Martin Macwan, Mimroth, Henry Thagraj
etc. all were also supporting the theme- "Caste System".
BJP sponsored puppets were trying to stop discussion on
Caste System because India sees the serious consequences to
its "so called largest democracy in the world" image alongwith
the real truth about Hinduism. Also India worries about future
Draft Declaration in the World Conference in 2001 in South
Africa and solutions to Caste System in it.
Pakhiddey insisted that he was opposed to having a theme
on "Caste System" because he said, "Dr. Ambedkar mentioned
that we are of the same race" Caste is not a discrimination. Even
the Brahmins have 354 sub-castes. They are also
discriminated".
Mr. Pakhiddey should do some reading on the literature of
Babasaheb, specially his last speech at Nagpur on 14-15th
October 1956 during the Conversion to Buddhism.
There Babasaheb clearly stated, explaining why he selected
Nagpur for Conversion that "Nagpur was the centre of Naga
Kingdom and Culture. There is a river known as Nag River
around this city, I heard ... Nagpur name also came from Nag
People. At one time Nagas were the warriors and rulers of
India... Nagas were the staunch followers of Buddhism ...After
Aryan invasion, there were many wars between them. India's
history is nothing but the struggle for supremacy between
Buddhism and Brahminism. They annihilated Nagas by hook
or by crook ... We heard the story of saving a Nag, the serpent,
by Agastya Rishi in the Hindu literature. That was not the nag
serpent but Nag people ...we are supposed to be the descendants
of that Naga Person ... " This clearly states that we, the Dalits,
are different from Indo-Aryans.
There is a need for our people in Delhi to give some lessons
to this "TRAITOR" and others like him who studied on the
scholarship created by our liberator.
Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination

(CERD)
For the information of our readers: In 1996 August,
Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD),
while discussing Country Report India submitted to Treaty
Bodies, heard the claim of India that situation of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes does not fall under the Scope of
the Convention and ruled that it does fall under the CERD
Convention. Ambedkar Centre had lobbyed very hard and
majority of 18 Experts were totally in favour of Dalits. The
report was very critical of India and it gave many strong
recommendations to implement immediately.
Two most important recommendations were: (1) "Continuing
campaign to educate the Indian Population on Human Rights ...
aimed at eliminating the institutionalised thinking of High-
Caste and Low-Caste Mentality".
(2) " .. just and adequate reparations to people suffering from
the acts of discrimination ... belonging to caste or tribe." More
details on 3 major- Conventions and Treaty Bodies of UN who
gave very strong recommendations to India on D~it problem
will be available on "www. Ambedkar.Org" very soon.
As our saviour, one and only liberator, Babasaheb, Dr.
B.R.Ambedkar said "Our battle is for Justice, reclaiming the
human personality ... Justice is on our side. We are bound to
succeed." Let us have a faith in our strength and unity. There
is a need for more Dalit Groups to work in International Arena
with firm belief in our cause and commitment till we succeed.
Dalit Solidarity Forum, with the support from Churches, is doing
good work in internationalisation in some parts of Europe. But
for better results we need to bring more serious workers globally
and sooner than later civil society in the west will have to come
to our rescue. It is the only choice they have to keep the stability
in South Asia and world peace-dismantle this hidden Apartheid!
Yours in the mission for a just society, Yogesh Varhade5 .
Conspiracy against Buddhist Political Share as of 2008
for Representing the Buddhists
According to Buddhist and SC Rights Association of
Maharashtra an E-mail appeal message regarding
reconsideration of constituency reorganisation Commission's

recommendation was sent to the President of India for sending
the same to the Parliament for its review because of serious
discrepancies committed therein. Because of separate column
of census 2001 tabulation for displaying Buddhist population
on the basis of religion the state Commission calculated the
population of SCs excluding that of the Buddhists and allotted
five reserved seats in the State Council and 29 reserved seats
in State's lower House based on the exclusive proportion of SCs
to total State population of the State and thus deprived the
political representation of sixteen percent SC population
inclusive of Buddhists of the state and their right for eight seats
in the Council and forty seven seats in the Assembly. Such error
put the social group of SC and Buddhist at loss when Zilla
Parishad, Panchayat and village panchayat elections were held
earlier. Now state legislative elections will also curtail their seats
in the name of constituency reorganisation commission's
resolution to be finalized soon. This is in violation of
qonstitutional Amendment Act 1990 and recognition of the
Buddhists at par with the SCs for social policies in India in
general and Maharashtra in particular.
Earlier to this incident such instance took place in case of
the representation of the tribes also. The reserved seats of the
tribes were r.educed due to elimination of the four north-eastern
states Jharkhand, Assam, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh
from electorate reorganisation there by the Central Cabinet.
For details on this matter please newspaper clippings in
Marathi may be researched.
Primary Source and Data Analysis for the Project
REPORT ON STATUS AND PROBLEMS OF
BUDDHISTS MINORITY IN NAGPUR
Profile of the respondents: Age-wise distribution of
Respondents
The sample of the study covered 63 respondents among
them 88.89 per cent were male and 11.11 per cent were female.
The age-wise distribution of the respondents illustrates that
majority of the respondents i.e. 63.49 per cent did not mention
their age during the interview. The number of the respondents
of age group 30-40 years constitute 14.29 per cent of total
respondents followed by the age group 40-50 and 50-60 years
comprising 9.52 per cent each. A marginal number of
respondents were from the age group of 20-30 years and 60
years accounted for 1.59 per cent each.
Educational Status of the Respondents
As far as the educational status of the respondents is
concerned 39.68 per cent of them did not indicate their
educational qualification in the schedule. But those responded
to the question regarding education reflects that most of them
were highly qualified. It is evident from the data given that
23.81 of total respondents were postgraduates followed by 19.05
having professional and technical degrees/diploma in various
disciplines and 7.94 per cent were holding M.PhillPh.D. and
other sorts of Higher qualification. 7.93 per cent of the
respondents were graduates and only 1.59 per cent constituted
the category having SSC level education. Not a single person
in the domain of the study undertaken was found illiterate or
below HSC level.
Occupation of the Respondents
The study shows that occupation of professorship/
lectureship/ teachership was found to be dominated among all
disciplines or professions with 23.89 per cent and the profession
of private and government service accounts for 26.99 per cent,
rest of the respondents were found to be engaged in other
occupations.
4.76 per cent of total respondents were social/religious
leaders and, farmers and monks accounted for 3.17 per cent
each. The students and retired persons were found in same
number and this number reckons for 3.17 per cent. The Doctors
and poets constituted the same percentage of sample and it was
a marginal number of the total respondent's i.e. 1.59 per cent.
The remaining 26.99% of the respondents did not respond to
the question regarding their profession.
Problems as stated by the Respondents
As data respondents having one to four member families
were 3 couples 4.76% and four to eight and eight to twelve
member couples 1/1.59% each respectively. The rest of the 58/
92.06% respondents did not respond in this regard.
Problems as Stated by the Members of

Buddhist Minority
S.No. Type of Respondents No. of Respondents
No./%
1. No Homogeneity in cultural and Social rites, 13/20.64

rituals (Marriage etc.)
2. Don't appear as a distinct community 8/12.69
3. Belief in Hindu customs and traditions 24/38.10
4. Lack of trained monks and training camps 11/17.46
5. Monks do not perform their duty 8/12.70
6. No effective organization for spreading ideas of
Buddha and Ambedkar 12/19.04
7. Vihars are not utilized for Dhamma Prachar and
discussions 11/17.46
8. People do not join social and Dhamma gatherings 9/14.29
9. Lack of unity/co-operation due to caste/sub-caste
ego and weak organization 26/41.27
10. No knowledge and acceptance of Bauddh rites e.g., 24/38.19
Panchshee1l22 Oaths
11. Lack of education 19/30.16
12. Unavailability of their own educational institutions 13/20.64
13. Poverty, unemployment/slavery/crimes in slums etc. 22/34.92
14. Don't have their own industrial unit/companies 5n.94
15. Drinking habit 5n.94
16. Living modern and fashionable life 111.59
17. No unity among Boddh organizations and monks 4/6.35
18. No social movement like those of Phule and Ambedkar 111.59
19. No unity and co-operations between political
and social leaders 13/20.64
20. Small in number and disunity, hence could not achieve 3/4.76
political power
21. No traditions and culture of their own 7/11.11
22. Educated and wealthy are apathetic to Buddhism
or unaware 10/15.87

No./%
23. Unawareness about their rights 2/3.17

24. Leaders are not interested toward spread of Buddhism 6/9.52
25. Buddhist counting by Govt. personnel is not fair 2/3.17
Total 63/100
The Hindu society has been instrumental in suppressing,

exploiting, degrading and discriminating a large chunk of
population. This is the population which belongs to the fourth
Varna of Hindu social system 'Chaturvarna' the Shudra and
the another section is Varna Bahya i.e. untouchables or Dalits
of today and women. The oppression by the upper castes has
been the prime factor, which led the people of lower castes to
leave Hinduism and take shelter under the shade of any other
religion or faith.
The untouchables have been the most badly affected victims
by inhuman orthodox traditions of Hinduism. Consequently,
this community has ever been in motion to take itself out of
Hinduism. The process was activated by Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar embracing Buddhism on 14th October, 1956. The
process of conversion of untouchables from Hindu faith to
Buddhism has been continuing since then. The Dalit converts
in any of the faith e.g. Islam, Buddhist, or Christianity have
been facing some of the acute problems due to various factors.
Problems
This study, is very much concerned with the Buddhist
converts, therefore we would deal with their problems only.
1. Poverty : As it is well known fact, that almost all Dalits
castes have been in immense poverty due to various restrictions
on them by the dominant castes of Hindus. After conversion,
this problem of poverty could not be resolved. It is evident from
. the study. The table 8.4 illustrates that 34.92% of the total
respondents responded that the main problem being faced by
the BuddhjSt converts has been of poverty. (Quereshi Ayyaj
Ahamad 1995, Wasnik, R.Kl996 and Bhadoria Kiran 1999).
2. Unemployment : This is further aggravated by

unemployment and squandering money in drinking and
celebrating useless rites, rituals and other ceremonies. The most
crucial problems as stated by the respondents and one that
comes on the front of discussion, is the problem of disunity, non-
co-operation between converts and non-converts and between
the different sub-castes of Dalits. The 41.27% of the respondents
offered their opinion in favour of this problem and considered
that this fact of disunity and non co-operation is one of the
biggest hurdle in the way of development of all Dalits including
converts.
3. Illiteracy: The inadequacy of the education among Dalit
masses has been one of the prime issue for centuries. The
problem of illiteracy has slightly improved after the
independence but compared to other categories of society it can't
be said satisfactory. In this regard, 30.16% of the respondents
considered that lack of education among the converts is a major
issue to be looked into.
4. Ignorance of Buddhist Rites: The Buddhist minority is
the group of society that has come from the lowest rung of
Hindu society. Their own culture and modes oflife were grabbed
and destroyed through applying the sanctions through social,
religious and political forces, this group therefore imitated and
followed the Hindu traditions, rites, rituals and started
worshipping of Hindus Gods and Goddesses. This process of
following Hindu traditions is still in practice. The 38.10% of the
respondents consider it as a problem for Buddhist minority as
it raises a strong impediment in the way of becoming a worth
potential and pure Buddhist culture. The one other reason
behind this, which the respondents consider important, has been
the general illiteracy and ignorance about the Buddhists rites
and rituals.
5. Heterogeneity of socio-cultural Rites: Of the respondents
20.64% think that the heterogeneity of social and cultural rites
and rituals is the main problem before the Buddhist minority.
They think that this is one of the most important problem, the
Buddhist minority is facing. According to them, the people of
this group cannot make themselves unite and run their cult
forward successfully as per the wishes and ideology of Dr.

Babasaheb Ambedkar.
6. No Distinct Culture : Because of this heterogeneity of
culture and adhering to the values of their old religion i.e.
Hinduism, Buddhist minority does not reflect a distinctness of
their own culture. This was the view of 12.69% of the'
respondents. There is no sufficient number of trained Buddhist
monks and teacher to teach Buddhist minority the teachings
of Buddha and rites and rituals of Buddhism. This was found
the consideration of 17.46% of people. This want of trained
monks / teachers and training camps leaves no alternative
before the people of this community except following their old
Hindu traditions. The Hindu rites have already been ingrained
in the mind of Dalit people and the scarcity of teachers and
training force them to be engaged in the old Hindu belief and
customs and rites. 38.10% of total respondents accepted that
the acceptance and follow up of Hindu belief (which are almost
the superstitions) is a big problem as well as a challenge to this
minority group.
7. Scarcity of Monks: The respondents told about the
scarcity of monks, training camps/places but this problem
further aggravates when the existing small number of monks
do not perform their duty as per the need of this minority group.
This was stated by 12.70% of respondents. Dr. Ambedkar puts
his view that neither the Bhikkhu Sangha guides the people
nor does it serve them (Jatava. D.R.: Critics ofAmbedkar). The
reason for such sort of behaviours is either due to the ignorance
of monks or their apathy towards accepting and spreading the
values of Buddhism. The most of the monks seem to be not
conscious about their position in the society as they come from
the lowest stratum of Hindus society, which had been their
traditional culture. It is perhaps owing to the reason that they
assume themselves too inferior to dream high so as to stay at
the top of society. As (Marx, and R.N. Mukerji & Arunansu
Ghosal; 2006, p.78) stated that the ideas of ruling class in every
age are the ruling ideas i.e. the class which is the dominant
material force in society is at the same time dominant
intellectual force. Next problem that the respondent felt was
the problem of unavailability or scarcity of organisations to
spread the thought and philosophy of Ambedkar and Buddha

19.04% of respondents were of this view.
B. Non-utilisation of Vihars to spread Buddhism : The
respondents told that the monks as well as Vihars were less in
number yet these places are not being fully utilised to spread
Buddhism and preach the people. The number of respondents,
who uttered none or less utilization of Vihars, constitutes
17.46% of the respondents.
9. Low presence in Buddhist Gatherings: Since the proper
efforts are not made by the Buddhist monks to create
awareness among the masses of Buddhist minority as well as
non Buddhists scheduled castes to make them realise the
importance of their own culture and ideology, the Buddhist
converts do not seem to be interested to join the social and
religious gatherings. The poor economic condition is one of the
reasons for it, but the awareness is the main thing. Therefore,
the low presence or absence is another problem as stated by
the 14.29% of respondents.
10. Lack of Education: The importance of education is well
known in the all around development of society as well as
individual. But as already mentioned low level of literacy is one
of the main problem before converts as well as non-convert SCs.
A large proportion of respondents which constitutes 30.16% were
found to have asserted that the lack of education is the acute
problem the Buddhist minority faces.
11. Absence of Buddhist Education Institutions: All
religious communities are well aware about their educational
needs and fulfilment of these but owing to various reasons the
converts and non converts SC do not have their own educational
institutions. 20.64% of respondents consider them as one of the
biggest problem before Buddhist minority.
12. Absence of Unity: The norms and values of Hindu social
order do not let the different castes and groups unite and work
with co-operation. No group or caste can escape the evil features
of this social order. 20.64% of the respondents said there exists
no unity and co-operative feeling among the political leaders
representing the community.
13. Lack of Awareness of problems and Conditions of

Buddhists : The educated persons of the converts can do a lot
for the improvement of Buddhist minority, but the 15.87% of
the respondents were of the view that the educated and
prosperous persons are either apathetic or unaware about the
problems and conditions of Buddhist minority.
14. Absence of Culture and Traditions : Because there is
no sufficient number of monks / religious places / Vihars etc. to
make the people know about the rites and rituals of Buddhism,
therefore the Buddhist minority faces a problem of not having
their own culture and traditions. 11.11% of respondents consider
this as one of the main problem before the Buddhist minority.
15. Dalit Leader's Non-Support to Change : 9.52% of the
respondents hold that the leaders are not interested to spread
their religion i.e. Buddhism. Rajsakher V. T. analyses this sort
of mentality of Buddhist or non Buddhist SC leaders. He
(Rajsakher; 1995, p. 17) equating SCs to the neegros of USA,
establishes that for the fear of loosing their place in socio-
political arena, the Dalit leaders feel a comfort in existing
scenario and they do not dare any change. He further
maintains that the Dalit leaders are not the leader of Dalits but
of their parties and parties are regulated by the Hindus. 7.94%
of respondents hold the view that the non existence of industrial
units and companies of the Buddhist minority is the another
problem, and the same number of persons i.e. 7.94% say that
the drinking habit of the people of this community is taking
them to the reverse direction of progress. It not only makes
their money spend but also kills their ambitions to go on to the
relatively higher level in society.
16. Lack of Coordination : The monk and Buddhist
organisation have no co-operation and co-ordination between
them. No proper plans are there to lead Buddhist minority in a
proper and desired direction. This was uttered by 6.35% of
respondents covered under study. A small fraction of
respondents e.g. 4.76% say that the Buddhist minority is less
in number and scattered here and there and it in itself becomes
a problem hampering their empowerment and development.
3.17% respondents proposed unawareness about their rights as
a problem before Buddhist minority.
17. Unfair Count of Buddhist Population: The same

percentage of people, i.e., 3.17% persons responded that
gov~rnment officials do not take fair steps when counting and
registering the number of Buddhist minority.
Suggestions given by the respondents 'to resolve the
above mentioned problem
and %
l. There should be more training centers and camps 7/11.11

for both fo.llo.wers and Mo.nks
2. There sho.uld be o.rganizatio.ns like Christian 27/42.86
missio.naries to pro.pagate Buddhism fro.m childhood
3. Educated perso.n especially yo.uth must help to
spread Dhamma 3/4.76
4. New avenues of educatio.n must be searched and
poo.r be given preference and aid 9/14.29
5. Need o.ftheir o.wn educatio.nal and Dhamma
Institutio.ns 15/23.81
6. Need o.f special mo.vements to upro.o.t the habits
o.f drinking and mo.ney squandering 7/11.11
7. Peo.ple be enco.uraged to co.me in Vihars and o.ther 9/14.29
social gatherings
8. Buddha and Ambedkar ideas are panacea, hence 11/17.46
be spread thro.ugh seminars/o.rganizatio.ns
9. Vihars must do. the jo.b o.f Dhamma and social refo.rm 7/11.11
10. Need o.f an eco.no.mic zo.ne ,o.f Buddhists (Industries!
co.mpanies) 9/14.29
11. Unity and co.-o.peratio.n between po.litical and
so.cial leaders 5n.94
12. Destructio.n o.f caste/sub-caste and ego., unity
and co-o.peratio.n be there 12/19.04
13. Abando.nment o.f wo.rshipping o.f Hindu Gods/Goddesses
and spread o.f 22 o.aths and implementatio.n 4/6.35
14. All Bauddh placesNihars etc. be given to Indian
Buddhists 2/3.17
15. There sho.uld be o.ur o.wn traditio.ns (civil codes
and marriage; acts etc.) 10/15.89
S.No. 1Ype of Respondents No. of Respondents

and %
16. Social movements like Phule's and Ambedkar's be

launched 1/1.59
17. Seminars and discussion on Buddha and Ambedkar's
Thoughts 3/4.76
19. Research centers and Institutions for the problems
of Dhamma and its followers 3/4.76
20. All Buddhist countries must come forward to 4/6.35
help Indian Buddhists
21. OBC be taken under the umbrella of Buddhism 1/1.58
22. Buddha and his Dhamma be made compulsory 4/6.35
to all Monks
23. Old methods of enlightenment be searched and spread 1/1.59
Total 63/100
References
1. Dr. K. Jamanadas;,Some Self Introspection on Future of
Buddhism, November 07, 2001 Send e-mail to
dalits@ambedkar.org with questions or comments about this
web site. "Shalimar", Main Road, Chandrapur, (Maharashtra),
442 402. Tel: (07172) 55346
E-mail: kjdas@nagpur.dot.net.in
2. An Overview of India's Buddhist Movement, Friday, October
06,2006.
3. An Open Letter To Rajdeep Sardesai, By Ravikiran Shinde,
31 October, 2006.
4. President All India Buddha Gaya Mahabodhi Mahavihar Action
Committee, Indora Buddha Vihar Nagpur, India. 440004
Ph. 0091-712-642575 e-mail: shuraisasai@rediffmail.com .
5. President, Ambedkar Centre for Justice and Peace, For
www.ambedkar.org from UN, Posted on 2001-08-10.
6. Social Thought from Comte to Mukherjee; (2006).
R.N. Mukerjee and Arunansu Ghosal, Vivek Prakashan,
New Delhi.
7. Dalit: The Black Untouchables of India, V.T. Rajshekar;
(1995), Clarity Press, Inc. Roswell RDNE, Atlanta.
8. The Critics of Dr. Ambedkar; (1997), D.R. Jatava, 8urbhi

Publication. Cited from Buddha and the Future of His
Dhamma, p. 17.
9. ibid, pp. 21-22.
10. J.K. Banthia, Director of Census Operation, Maharashtra,
Part II-BCii), 8eries-14, PCA for 8Cs, Mumbai 1993.
9
Ambedkar's Spirit of Indian Constitution
and Social Organisation
C.D. Naik
Ambedkar as Law Minister

Dr. Ambedkar performed his governmental and opposition
role perfectly well and effectively during his stay in the
Parliament from 1947 to 1951. His exemplary contribution is
and will be inspiring for generation to come. There has never
been such a cabinet member of the Government who
compromised with his principle and with promotion of the
weaker sections of society and resigned for the love of adherence
to their cause. His character and scholarship both are of
versatile standing and worth emulating for each and every
politician in this country.
Dr. Ambedkar was very much concerned about the
character of the Member of the Parliament. This aspect did not
receive much attention before and is therefore of very much
consequence. If social democracy is to pave way in Indian life
then character of citizen and that of the representative has
great significance in the political life of a country. Morality is
the foundation of social, political as well as religious life of the
people. A sense of morality is vital for building a fraternal bond
with which to tie all brothers and sisters of all the classes and
sections of the society.
Speaking in respect of Law Ministry of 1951 Dr. Ambedkar
told that a Central Agency was created for the conduct of cases
in the Supreme Court on behalf of the Central and State
Government and its expenditure was to be shared between the
Government of India and the Government of the participating
States. Dr. Ambedkar was associated with legal affairs as a
member of Bombay Legislative Council from 1927, as witness
before the Simon Commission in 1928, as participant in the
three Round Table Conferences dllring the period from 1930

to 1932, where, at the Second Round Table Conference, he
repeatedly clashed with Gandhi, who later signed the historic
Pune Pact, and recognized Dr. Ambedkar as the only true
spokesman of the depressed classes and became Labour Member
equivalent to Cabinet Minister in July 1942 of the Viceroy's
Executive Council.
Ambedkar's Appointment as Law Minister
Dr. Ambedkar was elected to the Constituent Assembly by
the Bombay Legislature Congress Party. As an elected member
of the Constituent Assembly of India Ambedkar was chosen as
the Chairman of the Drafting Committee on 29th August 1947.
Another Member Shri T. T. Krishnamachari mentioned about
the contribution of Ambedkar to Indian Constitution in these
words:
"Though a committee of seven members was formed, one of
them resigned. Another was nominated in his place. Another
member died. 'No one took his place. One of the members was
very busy with government work. Owing to ill health two other
members were far away from Delhi. As a result, Dr. Ambedkar
alone had to carry the entire burden of preparing the draft of
the Constitution. The work he has done is admirable."
N ehru appointed Ambedkar as the Minister of Law on 3
August 1947. As the Minister for Law, Dr. Ambedkar, placed
the draft Constitution before the Constituent Assembly after one
year, two months and six days (on 4th November 1948). He
gave satisfactory answers to many questions raised concerning
the Constitution. Article 17 of the Constitution wiping out
'untouchability' was approved twenty five days later (on 29th
November 1948).
Dr. Ambedkar as law minister visited Sri Lanka and
attended First World Fellowship of Buddhist's Conference in
1950.
• Burma as 'opposition leader in 1954, and
• Nepal in 1956 where he spoke on Buddha and Karl
Max depicting the superioty of Buddhas method of
peaceful revolution over Karl Max method.
Ambedkar's Spirit of Indian Constitution and Social.... 249
Presenting the Draft Constitution before the

Constituent Assembly
While responding to the debate on constitution in the
Constituent Assembly Dr. Ambedkar dwelt on the Indian history
of freedom and its consequences and warned the new Indian
nation in the following words:
"India has lost her freedom only owing to treason of her own
people. Raja Dahir of Sindh was defeated by Mohammad Bin
Khasim. The only reason for this defeat yvas that the generals
of the Sindh army took bribes from Dahir's men and did not
fight for the king. It was Raja Jaichand of India who invited
Mohammad Ghori to fight against Prithviraj. When Shivaji was
fighting for the freedom of the Hindus, other Maratha leaders
and Rajputs were fighting for the Mughals. When the Sikhs
were fighting against the British, other leaders did nothing...
Such things should not happen again; therefore, everyone must
resolve to fight to the last drop of his blood, to defend the
freedom of India."
The Constituent Assembly appointed him to the Drafting
Committee, which elected him as a Chairman on 29th August
1947. In February 1948 Dr. Ambedkar completed the Draft
Constitution of Indian Republic. On Oct 4th, 1948
Dr. Ambedkar presented the Draft Constitution to Constituent
Assembly. On 26 November 1949 Constituent Assembly adopted
the Constitution.
Resigning from Nehru's Cabinet
Two years later after adoption of Constitution on September
9, 1951 Dr. Ambedkar resigned from the Nehru Cabinet
because, in spite of the earlier declaration in the Parliament
by the Prime Minister Pt Jawaharlal Nehru, that his
Government would stand or fall or he himself would sink or
swim with the Hindu Code Bill Cabinet withdrew its support
to it. On 19th September 1951 though the bill was reduced to
only two items viz. the marriage and divorce and was discussed
in the Parliament it was not through even then and inevitably
on 11th October 1951 Dr. Ambedkar walked out of the House.
After resigning from N ehru's Cabinet Ambedkar contested Lok
Sabha election as an opposition leader in 1952 and 1954 but
was defeated in both these elections and acted as Member of
the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) since March 1952.
Dr. Ambedkar's Published Works

Even though Law Minister Dr. Ambedkar was busy in his
pursuit of literary production and publication of 1947-States
and Minorities, 1948-'The Untouchables', and Maharashtra as
a linguistic Province; 1950- The Buddha and the Future His
Religion; 1951-The Rise and Fall of Hindu Women, and Merits
of Buddhism, 1951-Buddha Upasana Patha his contributions
as Law Minister cannot be exaggerated.
Constitution
On the constitution (First Amendment) Bill Dr. Ambedkar
is reported to have said2 2. (P.D., Vol. 12, Part n, 16th/18th
May 1951, pp. 8814-15/9004-32) that in the situation of
Supreme Courts and High Courts interpreting constitutional
article provisions in such a way as to impede the advancement
of the weaker sections development which was not the intention
of the constitution father, nor reflecting the spirit of it was
inevitable to make amendments and restore the right view.
His Contribution to the Chapter on Fundamental Rights
Dr. Ambedkar is honored as the Principal Architect of the
Indian Constitution. The Fundamental Rights and the Directive
Principles of State Policy are his special contributions. If the
chapter on Fundamental Rights, particularly its cardinal
articles on Equality before the Law, Equality of Opportunity
and the Right to Life (and Livelihood) as interpreted by the Apex
Court are indeed held sacred, then read with Articles 37, 38
and 39 of the Directive Principles they are the guiding spirit
of the Constitution and immutable.
Dr. Ambedkar pressed repeatedly with the Chairman of the
Constituent Assembly to incorporate his proposals in the
Chapter on Fundamental Rights of the Constitution and not
disallow them on 'technical grounds'. He argued that it was a
matter in which the labouring classes in general and the
scheduled castes in particular, are vitally concerned. That is tlie
precise reason why it was not permitted in the justifiable part
of the Constitution but relegated to the Directive Principles. The
PS Appu Committee observed in its report on Land Reforms in
1972, that the hiatus between precept and practice, between
policy pronouncements and actual execution has been the
greatest in the domain of land reforms.
Reservation for Backward Classes in Public Services

and Educational Institutions
The necessity for the amendment of Article 15 arose on
account of the judgements delivered by the Supreme Court in
two cases which came up before them from the Madras State.
One case was Madras vs. Shrimati Champakam Dorairajan and
the other was Venkataraman vs. the State of Madras. In the
case ofVenkataraman the article involved was Article 29, clause
(2). In the one case the question involved was the reservation
for backward classes in public services and in the other case,
the question involved was the reservation for backward classes
in educational institutions.
It was said by the Supreme Court that Article 29, clause
(2), did not have a saving clause like clause (4) attached to
article 16. As the House will remember under clause (4) of article
16, a special provision is made that Article 16 shall not stand
in the way of the Government making a suitable provision for
the representation of backward classes in the service. Such a
provision of course is not to be found in Article 29. With regard
to Article 16, clause (4), the Supreme Court came to the
conclusion that it involved discrimination on the ground of caste
and therefore it was invalid. Ambedkar found this judgement
to be utter1y unsatisfactory. There was no disparagement of the
learned Judges at all. The judgement did not appear to be in
consonance with the articles of the Constitution. That was his
point.
In his view in Article 29, clause (2), the most important
word is 'only'. No distinction shall be made on the ground only
of race, religion or sex. The word 'only' is very important. It does
not exclude any distinction being made on grounds other than
those mentioned in this article and he respectfully submitted
that the word 'only' did not receive the same consideration which
it ought to have received.
Then with regard to Article 16, clause (4), Ambedkar's
submission was this that it was really impossible to make any
reservation which would not result in excluding somebody who
had a caste.
It was to be borne in mind and it is one of the fundamental

principles which is stated in Mulla's last edition on the very first
page that there is no Hindu who has not a caste. In this
connection Dr. Ambedkar in the course of his practice told the
presiding judge in very emphatic terms that I am bound to obey
his judgement but I am not bound to respect it.
His Contribution to the Chapter on the Directive
Principles of State Policy
The Directive Principles of State Policy, were held to be
legally unenforceable at the time the Constitution was adopted
in the name of "We the People .. ". However Directive Principles
of State Policy have a mandatory character, as the injunction
to the State. In the Constitution First Amendment Bill debate
also Dr. Ambedkar explicated how obligatory this constitutional
part is despite being unjustifiable as some prefer to invoke it
like that.
Now the point has to be borne in mind that in Article 46 of
the Directive Principles an obligation has been laid upon the
government to do everything possible in order to promote the
welfare and the interest of what are called the weaker sections
of the public by which Dr. Ambedkar understood to mean the
backward classes or such other classes who are for the moment
not able to stand on their legs-the scheduled castes and the
scheduled tribes. It is therefore incumbent not merely on the
Government but upon this Parliament to do everything in its
hands to see that article 46 is fulfilled and if that fulfillment is
to come, how one can escape an amendment so as to prevent
article 29, clause (2), and Article 16, clause (4) being interpreted
in the way in which it has been interpreted and being made to
block the advancement of the people who are spoken of as the
weaker class. That is the necessity for amending Article 15.
Article 19, an article which gave rise to great excitement
among the Members of the House. Clause (3) (1) (a) of the Bill
amends the original clause (2) of Article 19. As Members will
see this sub-clause proposes to add three heads: Relations with
foreign States, Public Order, and Incitement to offence.
A question was asked as to what was the necessity for
introducing three new heads. The necessity has arisen out of
certain judgements which have been delivered by the Supreme

Court as well as by the Provincial High Courts.
There are the judgements of the Supreme Court in Ramesh
Thapar's case and in Brij Bhushan's case, the judgements of
the State High Courts especially the Punjab High Court in
Master Tara Singh's case and Amarnath Bali versus the State
of Punjab. There are two judgements: Shilabala Devi versus
the Chief Secretary of Bihar of the Patna High Court and
Bynes versus the Stat of Madras of Madras High Court.
In Ramesh Thapar's case what was involved was the
validity of the Madras Maintenance of Public Order, 1949. Brij
Bhushan's case involved the validity of the East Punjab Public
Safety Act, 1949. Master Tara Singh's case involved the validity
of sections 124A and 153A of the Indian Penal Code. Amamath
Bali's case involved the validity of section 4 of the Indian Press
(Emergency Powers) Act of 1931. Shilabala Devi's case also
involved the validity of section 4 of the Press Act and the same
was involved in the case of Bynes versus Madras State.
All these cases have resulted in the decision that they are
void laws, that is to say, in view of the provisions contained in
clause (2) of Article 19, the courts have held that all these Acts,
however valid they might have been before the Constitution
came into existence, are bad laws now, because they are
inconsistent with the Fundamental Rights.
Press Act: Section 4
This is what Section 4 of the Press Act says:
"Whenever it appears to the Provincial Government that
any Printing Press, in respect of which any security has
been ordered to be deposited under section 3 is used for the
purpose of printing or publishing any newspaper, book or
other document containing any words, signs or visible
representations which "-" (a) incite to or encourage, or tend
to incite to or to encourage, the commission of any offence
of murder or any cognisable offence involving violence, or
(b) directly or indirectly express approval or admiration of
any such offence or o~ any person, real or fictitious, who
has committed or is alleged or represented to have committed

any such offence or which tend directly or indirectly. (c) to
seduce any officer, soldier, etc ...
It means that under the decision of the Provincial High
Courts it is now open to anybody to incite, encourage, tend to
incite or encourage the commission of any offence of murder or
any cognizable offence involving violence.
Is it a satisfactory position that any person should now be
free to incite or encourage the commission of offences of murder
or any cognizable offence involving violence? Is it a desirable
state of affairs that our Constitution should leave us in this
desperate position that we cO'lld not control the right of free
speech which has been granted by clause (1) of article 19 and
it should be so unlimited that any person should be free to
preach murder or the commission of any cognizable offence.
Public Safety Laws made by Supreme Court
The same thing has now occurred with regard to the public
safety laws or the laws made by the various States for the
maintenance of public order, because they also have been held
by the Supreme Court to be not open to any limitation by virtue
of the Constitution. The Supreme Court has made a distinction
between the security of the State and the maintenance of public
order. They say that it may be open for Parliament to make a
law for the security of the State but it is not open to parliament
to make a law for the maintenance of public order. Is the House
prepared to allow the right of freedom of speech and expression
to be so untrammeled, to be so unfettered, that any man can
say anything and go scot-free, although such speech creates
public disorder? If the judgements of the Supreme Court and
the High Courts stand as they are, then the only consequence
that follows is that we shall never be able to make a law, which
would restrict the freedom of speech in the interests of public
order and that we shall never be able to make a law which
would put a restraint upon incitement to violence. Consider
whether the void created in our legislation by the decisions of
the Supreme Court and the Provincial High Courts should be
allowed to remain in the name of freedom of speech.
Constitution of India Vs Constitution of USA

Why the Supreme Court and the various State High Courts
say that Parliament has no right to make a law in the interests
of public order or in the interests of preventing incitement to
offences? That is a very important question and refer very
briefly to the rules of construction which have been adopted
by the Supreme Court of the United States-and the House will
remember that if there is any Constitution in the world of a
country of any importance which contains Fundamental Rights
it is the Constitution of the United States, and those of us who
were entrusted with the task of framing our own Constitution
had incessantly to refer to the Constitution of the United States
in framing our own Fundamental Rights. There are many
Members, who are familiar with the Constitution of the United
States. How does the constitution of the United States read?
Hon. Members will realise that apparently there is one
difference between the Constitution of India and the
Constitution of the United States so far as the Fundamental
Rights are concerned. The Fundamental Rights in the
Constitution of the United States are stated in an absolute form;
the Constitution. does not lay down any limitation on the
Fundamental Rights set out in the Constitution.
Limitations on Fundamental Rights
Our Constitution, on the other hand, not only lays down
the Fundamental Rights but also enumerates the limitations
on the Fundamental Rights, and yet what is the result? The
result is this, that the Fundamental Rights in the United States,
although in the text of the Constitution they appear as absolute,
so far as judicial interpretations are concerned they are riddled
with limitations of one sort or another. Nobody can in the United
States claim that his Fundamental Rights are absolute and that
the Congress has no power to limit them or to regulate them.
In our country we are in the midst of a paradox; we have
Fundamental Rights, we have limitations imposed upon them,
and yet the Supreme Court and the High Courts say, "You shall
not have any further limitations upon the Fundamental
Rights."
Interpreting the US Constitution

Now comes the question; how does this result come to be?
Come to the canons of interpretation which have been adopted
in the United States and by the Supreme Court and High
Courts in our country. As hon. Members who are familiar with
the growth of the Constitution of the United States will know,
although the Constitution of the United States is a bundle of
bare bones, the United States Supreme Court has clothed it with
flesh and muscle so that it has got the firmness of body and
agility which a human being requires. How has this happened?
This has happened because the U.S. Supreme Court, although
it was the first Court in the world which was called upon to
reconcile the Fundamental Rights of the citizen with the
interests of the State, after a great deal of pioneering work
came upon two fixed principles of the Constitution.
Police Power
One is that every State possesses what is called in the United
States "police power", a doctrine which means that the State
has a right to protect itself whether the Constitution gives such
a right expressly or not. The "police power" is an inherent thing
just as our Courts have inherent powers, in certain
circumstances, to do justice. It is as a result of this doctrine of
"police power" that the United States Supreme Court has been
able to evolve certain limitations upon the Fundamental Rights
of the United States citizens.
Implied Power
The second dQctrine which the United States Supreme Court
developed and which it applied for purposes of interpreting the
Constitution is known as the doctrine of "implied powers".
According to the decisions of the Supreme Court if any
particular authority has been given a certain power, then it
must be presumed that it has got other powers to fulfil that
power and if those powers are not given expressly then the
Supreme Court of the United States is prepared to presume that
they are implied in the Constitution.
Interpreting the Indian Constitution
Now, what is the attitude which the Supreme Court has
taken in this country in interpreting our Constitution? The
Supreme Court has said that they will not recognise the
doctrine of the "police power" which is prevalent in the United
St.ates. The judgements of the Supreme Court, are dealt with
in the case known as Chiranjit Lal Chowdhuri versus the
Union of India otherwise known as the Sholapur Mills case.
You find the judgement of Mr. Justice Mukherjee expressly
rejecting this doctrine which in the text of the judgement occurs
on page 15. They say they will not apply this doctrine. The
reason why the Judges of the Supreme Court do not propose
to adopt the doctrine of "police power" is this, that thE'!
Constitution has enumerated specifically the heads in clause
(2) under which Parliament can lay restrictions on the
Fundamental Right as to the freedom of speech and expression
and that as Parliament has expressly laid down the heads under
which these limitations should exist, they themselves now will
not add to any of the heads which are mentioned in clause (2).
That is in sum and substance, the construction that you will
find in the case of Thaper's judgement which was delivered by
Mr. Justice Patanjali Sastri. He has said that they will not
enlarge it and therefore as the Constitution itself does not
authorise Parliament to make a law for purposes of public order
according to them Parliament has no capacity to do it and they
will not invest Parliament with any such authority. In the case
on the Press Emergency Laws also they have said the same
thing-that in clause (2) there is no head permitting Parliament
to make any limitations in the interests of preventing incitement
to an offence. Since section 4 of the Press (Emergency Powers)
Act provides for punishment for incitement to the commitment
of any offence. Parliament has no authority to do it. That is
the general line of argument which the Supreme Court Judges
have adopted in interpreting the Constitution.
With regard to the doctrine of implied powers, they have
also more or less taken the same view. There is ample scope for
recognising the doctrine of implied powers, and our Directive
Principles are nothing else than a series of provisions which
contain implicitly in them the doctrine of implied powers. These
Directive Principles are made a matter of fun both by judges
and by lawyers appearing before them. Article 37 of the
Directive Principles has been made a butt of ridicule. Article 37
says that these Directives are not justifiable that no one would
be entitled to file a suit against the Government for the purpose

of what we call specific performance. That is not the way of
disposing of the Directive Principles. What are the Directive
Principles? The Directive Principles are nothing but obligations
imposed by the Constitution upon the various Governments in
this country-that they shall do certain things, although it says
that if they fail to do them, no one will have the right to call
for specific performance. But the fact that there are obligations
of the Government, stands unimpeached. If these are the
obligations of the State, how can the State discharge these
obligations unless it undertakes legislation to give effect to
them? And if the statement of obligations necessitates the
imposition and enactment of laws, it is obvious that all these
fundamental principles of Directive Policy imply that the State
with regard to the matters mentioned in these Directive
Principles has the implied power to make a law. Therefore, my
contention is this, that so far as the doctrine of implied powers
is concerned, there is ample authority in the Constitution itself
to permit Parliament to make legislation, although it will not
be specifically covered by the provisions contained in the Part
on Fundamental Rights.
The various provisos attached to the various fundamental
articles need not be interpreted further as though they were
matters of strait-jacket as if nothing else is permissible. On
account of the declaration by the Supreme Court that this
Parliament has no capacity to make a law in certain heads, the
question before the House is this: can we allow the situation to
remain as it is, as created by the judgements, or we must endow
Parliament with the authority to make a law?
SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS
Organizations Established by Dr. Arnbedkar and their
Objectives and Programmes
In line with Buddha's Bhikkhu Organization which was
based on the slogan of weal and welfare programmes for the
people fir. Ambedkar established his social, and political
organisations as follows: 1. Depressed Classes Society, (2)
People's Education Society, (3) Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha, (4)
ILP, (5) SCF and (6) RP!. Ambedkar started the Bahishkrit
Hitkarini Sabha and the Samaj Samanta Sangh for the uplift
of untouchables. He led processions and dharnas for his
community, demanded separate electorates for them, parted
ways with Gandhi, violently differing with Gandhi's approach
toward the Untouchables, and finally, left the Hindu fold,
embracing with thousands of his followers the more egalitarian
faith of Buddhism.
This is what Jawaharlal Nehru wrote of the commitment
of Ambedkar to the untouchables: "Dr. B.R. Ambedkar would
be remembered mostly as the symbol of revolt against all the
oppressing features of Hindu society. In a way he symbolized
the hopes and aspiration of the oppressed and the
Untouchables."
Our Humanity is cultivated through our emotions. Each day
we should look not only to be moved by others, but also to move
them through kindness, patience and caring, said venerable
Master Sing Yunon. Dhammachakra Pravartan Din, October
15, 2002, Juhu Scheme, Mumbai.
In July 1924, he founded the Bahishkrut Hitkarini Sabha
that aimed to uplift the downtrodden socially and politically. The
Sabha campaigned for scrapping the caste system from the
Hindu religion, started free school for the young and the old
and ran reading rooms and libraries. Dr. Ambedkar took the
grievances of the "untouchables" to court and gave them justice.
People affectionately called him "Babasaheb." Ambedkar formed
the Independent Labour Party in 1936 and contested the
provincial elections. Ambedkar and his candidates won at many
places and fought against untouchability.
As a leading Dalit scholar, Ambedkar had been invited to
testify before the Southborough Committee, which was
preparing the Government of India Act 1919. At this hearing,
Ambedkar argued for creating separate electorates and
reservations for Dalits and different religious communities. In
1920, he began the publication of the weekly Mooknayak
(Leader of the Dumb) in Mumbai. Attaining popularity,
Ambedkar used this journal to criticize orthodox Hindu
politicians and a perceived reticence in the Indian political
community to fight caste discrimination. His speech at a
Depressed Classes Conference in Kolhapur impressed the local
state ruler, who shocked orthodox society by dining with
Ambekdar and his untouchable colleagues. Ambedkar exhorted
his Mahar community to abandon the idea of sub-castes, and

held a joint communal dinner in which the principle of
segregation was abandoned. Upon his return from Europe,
Ambedkar established a successful legal practise, and also
organised the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Group for the
Wellbeing of the Excluded) to promote education and socio-
economic upliftment of the depressed classes.
In 1926, he became a nominated member of the Bombay
Legislative Council, and led a satyagraha-non-violent protest
and civil disobedience as pioneered by Mahatma Gandhi-in
Madh to fight for the right of the untouchable community to
draw water from the main water tank of the town. On January
1, 1927 Ambedkar organised a ceremony at the Koregaon
Victory Memorial near Pune, which commemorated the Indian
soldiers who died during World War I. Here he inscripted the
names of the soldiers from his Mahar community on a marble
tablet. In a Depressed Classes Conference on December 24, he
condemned the ancient Hindu classical text, the Manusmriti
(Laws of Manu). Condemning it for justifying the system of
caste discrimination and untouchability, Ambedkar and his
supporters burned copies of the texts. In 1927, he would begin
his second journal, the Bahiskrit Bharat (Excluded India), later
rechristened as Janata (The People). He would be appointed
to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with the all-
European Simon Commission in 1928. This commission had
sparked great protests across India, and while its report was
ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate
set of recommendations for future constitutional reforms. He
was injured in an accident that occured during a visit to
Chalisgaon on October 23, 1929~ Hoping to help the
untouchable community, which was facing a social boycott from
orthodox Hindus, he was confined in bed there till the end of
the year.
In 1936, Ambedkar founded the Independent Labour Party,
which won 15 seats in the 1937 elections to the Central
Legislative Assembly. Ambedkar oversaw the transition of his
political party into the All India Scheduled Castes Federation,
although it performed poorly in the elections held in 1946 for
the Constituent Assembly of India. Since 1948, Ambedkar had

been suffering from diabetes. He was bed-ridden from June to
October in 1954 owing to clincial depression and failing
eyesight. He had been increasingly embittered by political
issues, which took a toll on his health. His health worsened as
he furiously worked through 1955. Just three days after
completing his fmal manuscript, Ambedkar died in his sleep on
December 6, 1956 at his home in Mumbai.
RPI:
Republican Party of India founded at the Last Leg & Life
by Dr. Ambedkar saw both its glorious and doctining phases.
• About the latter Shri Teltumbde commented as follows:
It is a tribute to the political consciousness of dalits that
while they starved and bled themselves over the issue of
unity of these leaders, it never occurred to them to ask, even
in a whisper, a question about the source of their material
well being! Many blatantly indulged in the acts contrary
to their profession for amassing wealth - some set up liquor
factories and still remained the front rank leaders of the
Buddhists, some allied with the rank casteist and
communalist and still claimed to be ardent Ambedkarites.
What counted was money and power. Paradoxically, the
more affiuent ones seemed to fit the bill better as they looked
bigger 'sahebs', adding an additional aura to their
leadership. Apart from the naked might of money in the
electoral politics that tended to situate the moneyed men at
the pedestal of power, the leadership model outlined above
certainly contributed to their susten8nce. With the money
power they could invest into cultivation of their cronies and
in turn command a better return in the wake of electoral
parleys. As a result, the so-called giants who claimed the
legacy of Ambedkar became contented with the identity of
the parenthesised alphabets of their names after the RPI.
They did not even worry about the fact that the formations
represented by these parenthesised identities were basically
a mere coagulation of their own sub-castes, in their
respective geographical areas.
BSP
BSP as political organization was founded by Shri Kanshi
Ram by caste (Chamar) in 1970s beginning with the social
organization called BAMCEF. The political aim ofthe BSP is to
capture the political master key to unlock each and every lock
of social, cultural, economic, employment, trade, land and
educational doors on the basis of vote-banks of the backward
classes in India, who account for 85 per cent of population
dominated by 15% Savarnas.
Findings on Application of Ambedkar's thoughts in
Social Organization in Indore, Ujjain and Dewas
Districts
1. Most of the organizations depend on donations as their
main source of financial support.
2. The social activities of the organizations include the
following: Co-operate in social functions (23/25%), to
enhance social awareness and social organizations (11/
11.95%), Female awareness, respect and empowerment
of women (11/11.95%), to make opportunities of work
available to the members of the SCs and STs (10/
10.87). To help the poor in need and make them aware
of their rights (717.60); to assist poor students
financially and promote educational opportunities for
them (6/6.52%); to remove habits of gambling/drinking
alcohol and encourage clean habits (4/4.34%). Other
activities (15/16.30%).
3. The organizations performed the following religious
activities: Propagate Buddhist religion, donations to
religious activities, to endevour to remove superstitions
(45/48.91); celebrating religious festivals, birth of great
men like Kabeer, Ravidas and Ambedkar, related to
temples, devotions (23/25%), and others (24126%).
4. Cultural activities of organizations cover celebration
oflife events of Buddha, Babasaheb etc. (32/34.78%);
national days, drama, singing, yoga, mediation, sport,
dance, competition, worship, entertainment etc (37/
40.21 %) and other (23/25%).
5. Political activities of the organizations are focused on

political awareness of rights, Dalit organizations and
membership (31133.70%); training and gains of
political consciousness, voting power, to support Dalit
political parties, training to Panchayat representatives
and public awareness campaigns (30/32.60%) and
other (31/33.70%).
6. Economic activities of the NGOs include to make
known governmental schemes, bank loans and utilize
the same, to form SHGs and maintain them (251
27.15%); to encourage economic development (151
16.31 %); to provide jobs for families broken and
impoverished and extend to them small amount of
loans (10/10.88%); to form womens saving groups and
help them stand on their own feet, training for making
domestic items and typing, computer education,
distribute books and copies for intelligent and poor
students (25/27.17%) and other (17/10.49).
7. Educational activities of the above organizations are:
to hold students competition and distribute educational
aids (20/21.74%); to promote higher education (161
17.3'9%), propagate education, female education and
prize for intelligent students (15/16.30%); to organize
evening classes, adult education, distribute
educational material, hostel facilities, schooling in
slums, for handicapped, all round development,
environmental education (20/21.73%).
8. Dr. Ambedkar's thoughts were propagated by the
organization by adopting various methods of which
Bheemsong, Buddhist speeches, camp are used (291
29.35%); by publishing small booklets and distribute
them among people and open public libraries (201
21.74%). Seminarlsymposium, debate competition,
singing and drama (11/11.96); celebrate birth and life
events of Dr. Ambedkar, hold meeting to explain to
public about their mission and discuss thoughts of
Ambedkar (14/15.21%). And other (20/21.74).
9. As a result of their social, economic, political, religious,

cultural and educational activities the organizations
achieved these results: people have learnt about
sacrifices of Dr. Ambedkar changed their lives
accordingly in respect of 20/21. 74 per cent. Public
awareness was enhanced and people got interested in
Buddhism in case of 24/26.9 per cent. Obtained jobs
through training and loan facilities, especially for
women, reduced burden of marriage customs by public
marriage organizations (19/20.65%); assistance was
taken by children and women for educative activities,
negative social customs were got rid off and carrying
human soil on the head was stopped in respect of 201
21. 74 per cent. Other 10/10.87%.
10. According to the majority of the organizations social
life is possible only if the SC/ST communities provide
their unbroken services for the rest of the society.
11. However the hurdles they faced in their performance
of application of Dr. Ambedkar Thought in the existing
social and cultural issues were namely superstition,
illiteracy, nil knowledge about Ambedkar, economic
difficulties, opposition by general people, lack of
literature regarding Babasaheb in simple language
and free of cost, time and money, political issues (55/
59.78%) and other 37/40.21 per cent.
SuggestionsIRecommendations
1. Active and useful organizations may be financially
assisted by public and Government agencies.
2. Thoughts of Dr. Ambedkar and Buddha may be
circulated through educational institutions, public
libraries, religious places, community centres and
government offices as indispensable for unity and
solidarity of social groups.
3. Social application of Ambedkar's philosophy and
Buddhism is the need of the hour and it should be
undertaken by NGOs and other agencies in the interest
of national and international interests.
4. Further researches in the similar topics may be

conducted to update the findings and learn more
effective ways and means of affecting richer and better
social and cultural life of communities.
5. The relevance of ideology of Ambedkar to the
contemporary social and cultural issues is revealed by
the fact that by the virtue of his ideas social justice
and equality, restructuring society, removal of casteism,
promoting education and change, women's
empowerment, economic prosperity amidst reservation
to the deprived classes are possibilities of the present
time in general and of places in Indore, Dewas and
Ujjain Districts in particular.
References
1. Joseph Raz "The Authority of Law: Essays on Law and
Morality" 1983.
2. Dr. Ambedkar as Law Minister and Member of Opposition
in Indian Parliament 1947-51, Vol. 12.
10
Educational Policies and Programmes for
Dalit : Present Scenario
Prof. Satyapal Katakar
Education is a very important factor in human life. The very

definition of education indicates its importance. According to
Buddha, "Education is enlightenment", for Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar it is "Power of realization" and according to John
Dewey, "What nutrition are to physiological life, education is
to social life".1 In India a handful people of high castes were
educated and masses were kept in ignorance in the name of
religion in order to exploit them. Consequently, even after
independence, education was monopoly of few people. In order
to bring these. socially, economically and educationally backward
people in the mainstream of the nation our constitution made
special provisions for them. In a general term, weaker section
includes those who are weaker with a specific reference to
economic and political development, social development,
educational development, physical development, intellectual
development etc. Thus, it includes Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes, Other Backward Classes, women, physically and
mentally challenged people etc. 2 Dr. Ambedkar called weaker
sections as the depressed people, oppressed people, backward
classes, broken people and in this category he included Dalits,
Tribes, Criminal Tribes etc. 3 The Government of India has been
making various educational policies and programmes for weaker
sections but Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar was the first one who
advocated special policies and facilities for weaker sections. He
gave protection to their rights in the form of our Indian
Constitution. While making the special provisions for these
people, he had lot of expectation from it, for example economic
and educational progress of these sections. So it is important
to examine to what extent we succeed in realizing Dr.
Babasaheb Ambedkar's dream regarding the upliftment of
weaker sections.
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar wrote lot of books on various

subjects but he did not write any specific book on his
educational philosophy. Nevertheless, his educational philosophy
is expressed in his articles on education which is published in
his weeklies like 'Muknayak', 'Janata' and 'Samata', in speeches
he delivered at meetings and conference of students, teachers,
in his suggestions on the Bombay University Reform, his debate
on the Bombay University Act Bills in Bombay Legislative
Council etc. His philosophy of education is so valuable that we
need to adopt it in the present education system to make it an
ideal society and the nation's welfare.
Contribution to the University Reforms Committee
On 15th August 1924, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar gave
written testimony before the University Reform Committee. He
was one of the intellectual to whom they sent their
questionnaire containing as many as fifty-four questions but
Dr. Ambedkar responded only to some questions that reval his
idea of higher education. It contains aims and functions of
university, discrepancies of the existing education system and
university's role in a society. While talking about aims and
function of the University Dr. Ambedkar says that, the
University is not merely the place of teaching, learning,
conducting examinations and conferring degrees. University
education must be society-oriented, scientific, shaping the
personality of a learner and unbiased, irrespective of the interest
of any particular class. He strongly recommended that unless
those backward classes were involved in the process of decision-
making and policy formulation in the Senate Body of the
University, their interest of education could not be protected
and promoted. He asserted that one of the fundamental
functions of the University is to provide facilities for bringing
higher education to the door of the needy and the poor. 4
Contribution to Bill on Education Grants
On 12th March 1927 while discussing the Bill on, 'Grants
for Education', in Mumbai Legislative Council, he brought to
the notice of the Government that due to the privatization of
the primary and secondary education by recovering the
expenditure by charging its cost on its recipients and in a form
Educational Policies and Programmes for Dalit... 269
of fees respectively, the backward classes will suffer a lot since

they are economically weaker than other classes, so it is essential
to make such education available to them at minimum cost. Dr.
Ambedkar urged the Government to spend extra money on the
primary education in order to stop the high rate of dropout
students. Unless Government spent extra money on the primary
education, the whole amount spent on primary education will
be wasted. H~ argued that the aim of primary education would
not be fulfilled merely by the enrolment of students in primary
education.
Minimum Level of Competency Goal
Education must develop minimum level competency in him.
Unless students develop minimum level competency they should
not leave schooL In 1990, Government appointed a committee
to start minimum level learning programme and Prof. R.H.
Dave was its chairperson. In 1995, the committee's programme
was recognized and in 1997 it was brought in effect. It is clear
that Dr. Ambedkar is the founder ofthis policy. If we had made
it earlier, the development of weaker sections must have been
faster than the present condition. A..lllbedkar knew that for
educational progress of these classes they are in need of special
facilities and provisions. As we know, Ambedkar's this view took
shape under Article 45 in the 'Directive Principles of State
Policy', which state 'free and compulsory educations to the
children of six to fourteen years age'. In 2001, according to 93rd
Constitution Amendment this provision was included in the
Fundamental Rights under Article 21C.5 While stating the
importance of education to the Backward Classes people, Dr.
Ambedkar says, "The Backward Classes have come to realize
that after all education is the greatest material benefits for
which they can fight. We may forego material benefits of
civilization, but we cannot forego our right and opportunity to
reap the benefits of the highest education to the fullest extent".6
Dr. Ambedkar gave prime importance to education. He believed
that even if we get independence notwithstanding the fact that
three-fourth of the population is drenched in ignorance, our
representative system will be a sham and there would be a rule
of wealth against poverty and of power against weakness.
Dr. Ambedkar makes it clear that education is not only

important for the upliftment of weaker sections but also for the
success of democracy in India.
The Starte Commission
In 1928 Ambedkar was one of the members of the Starte
Committee appointed by the Bombay Government to enquire
into the educational, social and economical condition of the
Depressed Classes and Aboriginal Tribes of the Presidency and
recommend measures for their upliftment. The Starte
Commission later in March 1930 submitted its report and in the
context of education, Dr. Ambedkar recommended an increase
in scholarship and hostels for the Depressed Classes students
attending Secondary schools, provision of scholarship for
industrial training of apprentice in Mills and Railway workshop
and scholarship for studying abroad. 7 Our Government's policies
and programmes for weaker sections clearly reflect Dr.
Ambedkar's thoughts on education for weaker sections.
Importance to 'Shil' : Good Character
Dr. Ambedkar equally gives importance to Shil that is good
character. He believed that the use of knowledge depends upon
a man's Shil. Knowledge is like a sword, in the hand of a man
with Shil, it may be used for saving him in a danger but in
the hand of a man without Shil, it may be used for murder, so
knowledge without Shil is dangerous, because compared to
illiterate man, educated person can use his knowledge to cheat
others and it is harmful. Dr. Ambedkar was highly influenced
by his Professor John Dewey's pragmatism. He believed that
our education system should adopt this philosophy in order to
make it society oriented. .
Hindu Code Bill and Women Empowerment
Empowerment of women is talk of today, but Dr. Ambedkar
realized it long before and he put it in action by introducing
'Hindu Code Bill' in the Parliament on 5th February 1951 as
the first Law Minister in independent India. He was aware of
the poor condition of women in our society and knew that for
the development of nation, empowerment of women is essential.
But unfortunately most of the Parliament Members rejected the
Bill. Dr. Ambedkar's disappointment was sore. He resigned his
seat from the Cabinet on 27th September 1951. The value he

attached to this Bill is clear from his resignation speech, where
he says, "The Hindu Code Bill was the greatest social reform
measure undertaken by the Legislature in the country... to
leave inequality between class and class, sex and sex which is
the soul of Hindu society untouched and go on passing
legislation relating to economic problems is to make farce of our
Constitution and to build a palace on a dung heap". 8 Dr.
Ambedkar argued that women must get education equal to men
and there should be no discrimination between them, for this
reason he advocated co-education. At that time, it was believed
that co-education would spoil boys and girls students. Dr.
Ambedkar said that if a man keep control on his passion even
in the company of women and if woman cannot deflect from
the path of virtue even in the company of men, then it is called
true morality. Thus, his definition of morality was very bro~d
and of high level. Dr. Ambedkar gave attention to every weaker
section people.
Designing of Fundamental Rights in Provisions relating
to Abolition of Untouchability
Dr. Ambedkar knew that in this caste-ridden society, the
rights of weaker sections need legal protection. Thus, he was
careful to secure the rights of the Depressed Classes and every
individual of weaker sections. He paid especial attention in
designing the Fundamental Rights in the constitution because
of the peculiar socio-economic condition, which are unshakably
deep rooted the ruling castes of India. In this connection, he
elaborately dealt with the provisions relating to abolition of
untouchability in Article 17.
Article 15 that states prohibition of discrimination on
ground of religion, race, sex, caste, place of birth. Article 16 gives
equality of opportunity in matter of public employment. Article
23 and 24 prescribe prohibition against exploitation, of traffic
in human being, and forced labour. Article 46 under 'Directive
Principle of State Policy' prescribes that the state shall promote
with special care the educational and economical interests of
the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the ,
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them
from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Article 335
under 'Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes gives
claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and
posts in the central and state governments. Article 338 under

'Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes' prescribes
national commission for Scheduled casts to investigate their
social, economic and educational condition and to protect them
from exploitation. Article 340 under 'Special Provisions Relating
to Certain Classes' recommends an appointment of a commission
to investigate the condition of the Other Backward Classes. For
the protection of the Minorities in India, Article 29 under
'Fundamental Rights' gives protection to their language, creed
and culture of Minority as well as Article 30 gives right to them
to establish education institutions and its administration. Apart
from these, there are several articles that give protection to
weaker sections.
Propagation of Education among Weaker Sections
To propagate education among weaker sections he
established 'The Depressed Classes Education Society' in 1928
and 'People Education Society' on 8th July 1945 which opened
Siddhartha Art and Science College in 1946 in Bombay, Milinda
College of Art and Science in 1950 in Aurangabad and
Sidhartha Commerce and Economic College in 1953. Dr.
Ambedkar's thoughts on education will always be our guiding
light to make our education system as an instrument of every
individual's development as well our nation's development. Dr.
Ambedkar was not only a brilliant economist, politician, social
thinker but also an expert educationist whose educational
philosophy is valuable in every context of life.
Education Commissions and Policies
To improve the standard of education and to propagate it
among weaker sections Government of India has appointed
various education commissions with the passage of time. Thus,
it is important to see what recommendations they have given
in this regard and to what extent it has helped weaker sections
in education.
University Education Commission (1948-49). It was
the first Commission in the field of education in independent
. India. It was appointed in 1948 under the chairmanship of Dr.
Radhakrishnan. The objects of this Commission were to study
contemporary universities and to find out their shortcomings,
to determine the aims of higher education, suggest the
measures for raising the teaching standard of higher education
etc.
Educa tional Policies and Progra mmes for DaW ... 273
Secon dary Educa tion Comm ission (1952- 53). According

to the recom mend ation of the Centr al Advis ory Board of
Educa tion of 1951, the Gover nment appoin ted the comm ission
under of Laksh mansw ami Mudal iar, then Vice-C hancel lor of
Madra s Univer sity. The objects ofthis Commission were to study
the organ ization and admin istrati on of second ary school s of
every provin ce of India and sugge st measu res for their reform ,
to study second ary educat ion curric ulum and sugges t reform ,
to study exami nation system of second ary educat ion of every
provin ce of India and sugges t remed ies etc.
Natio nal Educ ation Comm ission (1964 -66). The
Gover nment in 1964 appoin ted a comm ission for advice on the
nation al patter n of educat ion and the genera l princip le policy
for the develo pment educat ion of all stages . The chairm an of
UGC Dr. Kotha ri was appoi nted as the chairm an of this
Comm ission. The Comm ission starte d its work on 2nd Octob er
1964 and subm itted its repor t on 29th June 1964. The
Comm ission sugges ted that educat ion should be related to life
and need of person , the proces s of moder nizatio n should be speed
up and the develo pment social values etc. The Comm ission
made especi al recom menda tions for weake r sectio ns under
'Equal ization of Educa tion Oppor tunity '.
Natio nal Polic y on Educ ation (1986) . 'The Nation al
Policy on Educa tion' annou nced in 1986, marke d the signifi cant
steps in the history of educat ion in post indepe ndent India. It
took steps for the advan cemen t of weake r section s in educat ion.
In fact, it is renew al of Nation al Policy on Educa tion 1968.
Revis ed Natio nal Polic y on Educ ation 1986 (1992) .
With the Natio nal Policy on Educa tion in 1986, its
imple menta tions and result s will be review ed by every five
years, in the meant ime the Natio nal Front Gover nment
appoi nted Ram Murti Comm ittee in 1990 and Janar dhan
Reddy Comm ittee in 1992 to review the policy.
Educ ation Polic ies and Prog ramm es for Weak er
Sectio ns
Pre-M atric- Post Matri c Schol arship s for Weake r Sectio ns
Dr. Ambe dkar made it clear that for the succes s of our
democracy, literac y would be the first condit ion so the high rate
of illitera cy becam e major proble m in India and Gover nment
-274 Buddh ism and Dalits : Social Philos ophy and Tradit ions
set out to make variou s educa tional policie s and progra mmes
for weake r sectio n due to their low percen tage of enrolm ent in
every stage of educat ion. For advan cemen t of educa tion among
SC, ST and OBC people Gover nment starte d Pre-M atric and
Post-M atric Schol arship for them. Surely , these stude nts
benefi tted from it, especi ally in case ofPre- Matric schola rship,
it secure d their retent ion in second ary schools. The drawb ack
of this policy is that most of the time stude nts get their
schola rship at the end or after compl etion of their academ ic
year. Thus, the very purpo se of award ing schola rship is
neglec ted due to the delay. Stude nt could not utilize this amoun t
to fulfill his educa tional needs. The same condit ion is of Post-
Matric schola rship. The maint enanc e amoun t of Post-M atric
schola rship should be increa sed so that studen ts can fulfill their
educa tional needs . To make this policy more effect ive
Gover nment should award it per month so that the object of
award ing schola rship will be fulfilled. Gover nment is provid ing
schola rship to studen ts belong ing to minor ity but the numb er
of schola rship is so limite d that very few studen ts get this
schola rship. While makin g educat ion progra mmes and policie s
gover nment should take care that major ity studen ts will be
benefi tted from it.
Const ructio n of Hoste ls
In order to enable and encou rage studen ts belong ing to
Sched uled Castes to attain the qualit y educat ion, the schem e
of constr uction of hostel s was starte d in 1989. This schem e was
revise d and renam ed as "Babu Jagjiv an Ram Chhat ravas
Yojan a" in 2008. The object of this schem e is to provid e
reside ntial accom modat ion faciliti es to Sched uled Castes boys
and girls studyi ng in middle school, higher second ary school,
colleg es and univer sities. Accor ding to this schem e, 266 Boys'
hostel s and 111 Girls' hostel s were built in 2003-0 4. In the
follow ing two years, this numbe r was decrea sed to 110 Boys'
hostel s and 14 Girls' hostel s in 2004-0 5 and in 2005-0 6, the
numb er of hostel s were 88 Boys' hostel s and 56 Girls' hostel s.
In 2006, 109 Boys' hostel s and 204 Girls' hostel s and in 2007,
114 Boys' hostel s and 187 Girls' hostel s were built. This schem e
helped especi ally to rural Sched uled Castes studen ts to study
in urban places . (web source )
National Overseas Scholarships for se Students

To promote the higher study in SC students and to enable
them to study abroad the Central Government started, "The
Central Sector Scheme of National Overseas Scholarship" in
2007-08. According to this scheme, the financial assistance of
fifty thousand overall is provided to the selected candidates for
pursuing higher studies abroad in specified field of Master level
courses and Ph.D in Engineering, Technology and Science. The
awards under the scheme are not available in discipline of
Agriculture, Medical Science, Humanities and Social Sciences.
Thirty awards per year are available under the scheme with
twenty-seven awards for SC, two awards for Denotified
Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes and one award for Landless
Agricultural Labourers and Traditional Artisans. (Web source)
It is noteworthy that Government is taking efforts to promote
higher study in SC students by giving financial assistance to
study abroad. Every year thirty students will be going abroad
for higher study.
Drawbacks
The conditions for getting the scholarship produce questions,
is it really helping the poor students among SC who cannot bear
the big amount to study abroad? The first condition to get this
scholarship is that a student has to secure the admission in
Foreign University or institute. Those students who are
intelligent but whose economic condition is not sound cannot
take up entrance exam and attend interview in foreign
countries in order to get admission and Government does not
provide any help in this regard. The second important factor
is, this scholarship is awarded only for Engineering and
Technology and all other courses are excluded from it. It
underestimates the value of Humanities, Social Sciences and
other subjects. It is accepted that today's world is the world of
industry and technology but does not our country need brilliant
economists? Does not our country need political philosophers
and social thinkers? Sayajiraje Gaikwad, the King of Baroda
gave scholarship to Dr. Ambedkar to study abroad and our
country got a brilliant economist, political philosopher and social
thinker. Therefore, it is important that Government should give
this scholarship to other courses as well. The third drawback

of this policy is its selection procedure. The candidates who
apply for this scholarship is called for interview and the merit
list is prepared to make the short list of candidates. In case of
tie up of two or more candidates the one who is eldest in age
as per the date of birth, the priority is given to this candidate.
The criterion of age seniority is wrong one. Dr. Ambedkar
dismissed this criterion for filling the high posts vacancies in
any employment. In the University Reform testimony he says,
"The principle of seniority has become sacred convention that
all upper grade vacancies are filled by this and not on the basis
of intellectual ground and the field of education is not exception
to it lO • In view of Dr. Ambedkar person's intellectuality and
creativity count more than seniority. In the 'National Overseas
Scholarship' selection, criteria should be an intellectuality of the
candidate and his economic condition. Government should help
students in taking up entrance examination of foreign
universities, so that the poor students will be benefitted by this
scheme. Dr. Ambedkar as the Member of Parliament argued and
demanded that weaker sections and especially Scheduled Castes
students should get financial assistance to study abroad because
they are backward and poor and cannot bear the high cost of
foreign education. For the development of these people
Government should restart the scheme of sending the backward
classes students foreign to study higher education. The policies
which Government is implementing now, was first of all
advocated by Dr. Ambedkar.ll
Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship
To increase opportunities available to Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes students in research work the Central
Government started the "Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship" in
2005 that provides financial assistance for pursuing research
work in Science, Humanities, Social Science, Engineering and
Technology in all recognized Universities and Research
Institutes of India. There are one thousand three hundred and
thirty three slots for Scheduled Castes students and six
hundred sixty-seven slots for Scheduled Tribes students. To
increase the participation of women in research work, 50% of
the fellowship is awarded to women candidates. According to
277
Educa tional Policies and Programmes for Dalit...
these schem e twelve thousa nd per month for initial two years
and fourte en thous and per month for remai ning tenure is
award ed to those who are pursu ing resea rch work in
Huma nities and Social Scienc e with the contin gency of ten
thousa nd per annum for initial two years and twenty thousa nd
five hundr ed per annum for remain ing tenure . Those who are
pursu ing resea rch work in Scien ce, Engin eering and
Techn ology are award ed fourte en thous and per month for
initial two years and fifteen thousa nd per month for remain ing
tenure with the contin gency of twelve thousa nd per annum for
initial two years and twenty thousa nd five hundr ed per annum
for remain ing tenure . The selection is made on the basis of merit.
The drawb ack of this schem e is that Gover nment makes delay
in distrib uting the schola rship and schola rs have to wait for
month s to get it. There are lot of needy people who want to
pursu e highe r educa tion and to enable them to study, it is
needf ul that the numb er of slots shoul d be increa sed.
Gover nment should make the policy to secure jobs of high-
educa ted weake r sectio n people. (web source )
In our Indian Const itution Articl e 41 under 'Direc tive
Princi ples of State Policy' prescr ibes that the state shall within
the limits of its econo mic capac ity and develo pment make
effecti ve provis ion for securi ng the right to work, to educat ion
and to assista nce in cases of unemp loyme nt, old age, sickne ss
and disabl ement . To bring this provis ion in effect, the Minist ry
of Social Justic e and Empo werm ent starte d the 'Natio nal
Schol arship for Perso ns with Disab ilities ' which provid es
financ ial assist ance of seven hundr ed per month and four
hundr ed per month for the hoste llers and day schola rs
respec tively who are pursu ing Post-M atricl Post-S econd ary
techni cal and profes sional course s. For pursui ng M. Phil and
Ph.D in profes sional and techni cal course s, the amoun t of
thousa nd per month for the hostel lers and seven hundr ed per
month for day schola rs is given. As we compa re this schola rship
schem e with other schola rship schem es, the amoun t given in
this schem e is insuffi cient that can hardly fulfill their needs.
This schola rship progra mme is meant to promo te educat ion in
these studen ts and make them able to live comm on life like any
individ ual in society. However, the criteri on for the contin uation
of this schola rship is strict one. The contin uation of the
schola rship for the next year depen ds on succes sfully compl eting
the course in the precee ding year with minim um 50% marks .
For these people to pursue educat ion itself is a big challe nge
and put the condit ion of 50% in the precee ding exami nation is
too strict to enable them to contin ue the schola rship. For
educa tional develo pment of weake r section s, Gover nment has
been makin g variou s policie s and progra mmes and for the
succes s of these policie s, Gover nment should make sure that
these have reache d up to the lowest strata of society. In Octob er
2008, the Supre me Court gave verdic t on reserv ation for OBC
studen ts in highe r educat ion. Accor ding to this verdic t, OBC
stude nts got 27% reserv ation in UT, IIM and Centr al
Unive rsities .1 2 It is impor tant to exami ne to what extend
weake r sectio ns have achiev ed progre ss in educa tion in the
presen t scenar io.
Prese nt Scena rio in Educ ation Syste m
Today the world has becom e a global econom y; an open
marke t that ultima tely leads to intens e compe tition in every
sphere of life and educa tion is not except ion to it. At such time,
Gover nment has to carry out double respon sibiliti es at the same
time. It has to cope with the presen t system of econom y and
bring the nation at the forefro nt of develo pment and at the same
time it has to take care that weake r sectio ns are not left behind
in this compe tition. Table 1 will help us to under stand their
condit ion in educa tion field.
Table 1. Estima ted Popula tion by Age Groap s (2005)
(in % age)
Stages of Relevan t Age All SC ST
Educat ion Groups Categories
Studen ts
Primar y 06-11 12.1 2.1 1.1
Upper Primar y 11-14 7.4 1.2 0.6
Eleme ntary 06-14 19.4 3.4 1.7
SedSen ior 14-18 9.4 1.5 0.8
Second ary
Higher Educat ion 18-24 12.4 1.9 0.9
All Educat ion 06-24 41.3 6.8 3.4
Source : www.S cribd.S cribd.c om/doc l11569 307/Ed ucation -Statis
tics-
2005-0 6.
From the Table 1, it is clear that the se and ST students

are still struggling to make their progress in education. There
is a wide gap between the all categories of students of every
stage and se and ST Students. Their share in overall
percentage of every stage is very low that itself indicates the
poor condition of these people in education despite the fact that
the Government are implementing various schemes for them.
It is important to give attention to women's education since they
constitute one of the factors in weaker sections. Table 2 makes
clear their progress in education.
Table 2. Percentage of Girls Enrolment to Total Enrolment
by Stages of Education
~ar Primary Middle Sec./Hr. Sec. Hr. Education
I-V VI-VIII Intermediate Degrees and
IX-XII above level
1980-81 38.6 32.9 29.6 26.7
1990-91 41.5 36.7 32.9 33.3
2000-01 43.7 40.9 38.6 39.4
2001-02 44.1 41.8 39.5 39.9
2002-03 46.8 43.9 41.3 40.1
2003-04 46.7 44.0 41.1 39.7
2004-05 46.7 44.4 41.5 38.9
2005-06 46.6 44.7 42.0 38.3
Source: http://www.education.nic.in/statsIES·Glance%202005·06.pdf
It is clear that women are making progress in education due
to the efforts taken by Government and NGOs. We need to take
more efforts to increase their participation and to balance
gender parity in education. The backwardness of weaker
sections in education is due to drawbacks in educational policies
and programmes, unawareness among these people about these
policies and the most importantly the privatization in education
system. The privatization in education has created the
contradictory situation, on the one hand, the number of
educational institutes is increasing every year and on the other
hand, the enrolment of women and those belonging to se, ST
are still very much under representation. At the time of
independence, our country had twenty universities and six

hundred thirty six colleges.
Today we have more than three hundred universities and
over twenty thousand colleges. This will be increasing every
year for example in 2008, one hundred and twenty one
institutes got recognition as Deemec Universities. (web source)
As we observe this data, the percentage of private unaided
institutions has increased with the advanced stage of education,
at the primary level it is only 7.1% but at the senior secondary
level, it is 32.3%. On the contrary, the percentage of
Government schools is being reduced with advance stage of
education. It reveals the reason behind the contradictory
situation in education. The private institution at every stage
swelling the figure of total number of educational institutions
but their high fee is beyond the consideration of weaker sections,
thus they cannot get access in these institutions. The
privatization of higher education and professional courses has
badly affected weaker sections.
Privatization of Education: Impact on Dalits
Privatization of educational institutions claims to increase
quality and ease Government's financial burden. But many
educational scholars and writers show that it is not the case.
The underlying philosophy of privatization is that anything
related to the public sector is inefficient and anything related
to the private sector is efficient and desirable. Accordingly,
privatization is being pursued in all sectors of economy
including education as a means of improving efficiency and
easing financial stress. But overall efficiency of the system may
indeed suffer and financial gain may not be sizeable. 13 In
general, it is argued that education as public good has suffered
in India and that the privatization is proceeding apace with
public higher education sector funds being reduced. Neo-liberal
policy and globalization have increasingly taken hold in India,
leading to a doubling of higher education sectors~ a rapid
increase in private institutions and number of problems related
to access, quality and equity in education.
It is noteworthy to remember that Dr. Ambedkar in 1924
while writing testimony on the Bombay University Reform,
questioned the quality maintained by the private educational

institutes while imparting higher education. He says, "At
present the teachers are attached to the colleges and their pay
and status are regulated by the authorities governing the
colleges. But the colleges do not seem to be making the
appointment solely from the sense of obtaining the most
qualified persons nor regulating their grades, tenure, pay and
promotion in such manner as to open a career to the best and
most qualified members of the staff. 14 He rightly points out that
in private educational institutes self-interest is more important
than quality and equity in education. Apart from the problem
of quality and equity, it has given rise to many other problems.
As education is privatized, less privileged youths are denied
access to professional and technical education. It is this denial
and exclusion from education and jobs make them prey to
fundamentalist right wing forces.1 5 It is quite true that
exclusion from education and unemployment leads man to
follow wrong path but from the recent events happened in
India it shows that in the name of protection of culture and
religion, terrorism taking its root in India and even highly
educated people are part of it. While making education policy
and curriculum instead of national value and scientific views
if we give more importance to culture and religion, it will lead
to the beginning of terrorism. In our schools and colleges when
we give undue importance to religion, students perceive that
their religion is superior to other and it is under threat so in
order to protect their culture and religion they choose the path
of terrorism. Therefore it is important that while making
education policy scientific views and philosophy of Dr. Ambedkar
should be adopted.
Today Dalits are lagging behind in every field of life. In
order to bring them in the mainstream of nation, education is
the most effective instrument. It is the most vital input for the
growth and prosperity of nation. It has the power to transform
human being into human resources. It is important that while
making educational policies, aims and goals decided by our
constitution must be given priority, that is, "... To secure to all
its citizens Justice, social, economical and politicaL .. Equality
of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all
282 Buddh ism and Dolits : Social Philos ophy and Traditions
Frater nity assuri ng the dignit y of the indivi dual and the unity
and integr ity of the Nation ..." The succes s of democ racy lies in
people and .our educa tion must be such that brings all round
develo pment of person ality of a learne r, that inculc ates nation al
values in a learne r, that will lead to nation 's unity and integri ty.
While makin g educa tional policie s nation 's welfar e must be
given priori ty and welfar e, of nation is not compl ete unless
weake r section s are educat ed and empow ered. It is respon sibility
of our Gover nment and their organi zation s like NCER T and
SCER T which make educa tion policy and curric ulum from
prima ry to highe r secon dary level and NCTE , AIU, UGC,
AICTE , Bar Counc il ofIndi a, Medic al Counc il ofIndi a, Counc il
of Archi tect, Centr al Counc il of India, Pharm acy Counc il of
India, Indian Nursin g Counc il, the Counc il of Highe r Educa tion
and Distan ce Educa tion Counc il that make educat ion policy and
curric ulum for higher educa tion from under gradu ate level to
Ph.D. to make educa tional policie s as such that enable our
studen ts to compe te in this global econom y world and develo p
in him a sense of respon sibilit y towar d his nation and people .
We have achiev ed a little succes s in this regard becaus e in our
societ y even highly educa ted and high post people do not think
beyon d their caste and comm unity. In priva te unaid ed
profes sional colleges the studen ts ofSC, ST, OBC, NT, VJAw ere
not gettin g any freesh ip or schola rship so it was hard time for
the poor stude nts to compl ete their course . In 2002, some
initiat ive was taken to get these studen ts full reimb ursem ent
in Medic al, Engin eering , Agricu ltural, Pharm acy and Nursin g
Colleg e. The autho r met Gover nmen t officia ls and wrote
requis ition letters to them in order to make them under stand
the impor tance of freesh ip in profes sional course s for weake r
sectio ns. Along with studen ts, he gave requis ition letter to
Maha rashtr a Legisl ative Assem bly. He also wrote requis ition
letters to officer s of educa tion depar tment and to the Presid ent
of India, Minis ter of Educa tion and others . The forme r Presid ent
Honou rable Mr. Abdul Kalam took notice of this proble m and
drafte d a letter to Maha rashtr a Gover nment to solve the
proble m immed iately. In Maha rashtr a in all privat e unaide d
profes sional colleg es, the stude nts of SC, ST, NT, VJA are
gettin g the full reimb ursem ent and OBC studen ts got 50% fees
concession in the above mentioned professional courses.

Government should imply this policy in all states of India that
will help weaker sections students to pursue professional
courses and higher study.
It is need of our time that we, followers of Dr. Ambedkar
should come together, collaborate, and cooperate to solve the
problems of our nation and its people. It is our responsibility to
take Dr. Ambedkar's thoughts to every common man of this
country then only our nation will be strong enough to face the
challenges of 21th century and will become a developed nation.
References
"Parliamentary Debate in Rajyasabha, August-September, 1954".
Ambedkar, B.R. Dalitanche Shikshan Trans. and Ed. Devidas
Ghoreswar. Nagpur: Samata Prakashan Samata Sainik Dal,
1994.
Basu, Durga Das. Introduction to the Constitution of India. 18th
Ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 1998.
Chand, Tara, Development of Education System in India. New
Delhi: Anmol Publication Pvt. Ltd., 2004.
Keer, Dhananjay, Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Bombay: Popular
Prakashan, 1971.
Krestovics, Maik and Steve 0 Michael. Financing Higher Education
in Global Market. New York: Algora Publication, 2004.
Kundale, M.B. Shekshnic Tatvadyan aani Shekshnic Samajshastra.
(Educational Philosophy and Educational Sociology) 10th ed.
Pune: Shreevidya Prakashan, 2003.
Moon, Vasant, ed. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches.
2nd vols. Bombay: Education Department Maharashtra, 1982.
Mukhopadhyay, Marmar and Parhar, Madhu. Indian Education:
Development since Independence. Calcutta: VIkas Pub. House,
1999.
Naik, C.D. Thoughts and Philosophy of Dr. Ambedkar. New Delhi:
Sarup and Sons, 2003.
Sharma, Prakash Sanjay. B.R. Ambedkar: A Crusader of Social
Justice. Jaipur. RBSA Pub., 2003.
Shiva, Vandana. India Divided Diversity and Democracy under

Attack. Bangalore: Seven Stories Press, 2005.
Shukla, P.D. The New Education Policy in India. New Delhi:
Sterling Publisher Pvt. Ltd., 1985.
Oza ed. Chronicle Year Book, Noida: Chronicle Publication Pvt.
Ltd., 2009.
Web Sources:
www.socialjustice.nic.in
www.scribd.com
www.eciucqtion.nic.in
www.ugc.nic.in
References
1. M.B. Kundale. Shekshnic Tatvadyan aani Shekshnic
Samajshastra. (Educational Philosophy and Educational
Sociology) 10th ed. Pune: Shreevidya Prakashan, 2003, p. 6.
2. Tara Chand, Development of Education System in India. New
Delhi: Amnol Publication Pvt. Ltd., 2004, p. 177.
3. Vas ant Moon.ed. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and
Speeches. 2nd Vols. Bombay: Education Department
Maharashtra, 1982, p. 41.
4. Ibid., pp. 296-312.
5. N.N. Oza ed., Chronicle Year Book. Noida: Chronicle
Publication Pvt. Ltd., 2009, p. 146.
6. Vasant Moon.ed. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and
Speeches. 2 nd vols. Bombay: Education Department
7. Dhananjay Keer Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Bombay:
Popular Prakashan, 1971, p. 132.
8. Sanjay Prakash Sharrna B.R. Ambedkar: A Crusader of Social
Justice. Jaipur. RBSA Pub, 2003, p. 162.
9. Dhananjay Keer Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission. Bombay:
Popular Prakashan, 1971, p. 124.
10. Vasant Moon ed. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and
Speeches. 2nd Vols. Bombay: Education Department
Maharashtra, 1982, pp. 303.
11. Parliamentary Debate Rajyasabha August-September, 1954
in RR. Ambedkar. Dalitanche Shikshan. Trans. and Ed.
Devidas Ghoreswar. Nagpur: Samata Prakashan Samata
Sainik Dal, 1994, pp. 1140-41.
12. N.N. Oza, ed. Chronicle Year Book. Noida: Chronicle Pub.
Pvt. Ltd., 2009, p. 155.
13. Maik Krestovics, and Michael Steve 0 Financing Higher
Education in Global Market. New York: Algora Publication,
2004, p. 286.
14. Vasant Moon, ed. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and
Speeches. 2 nd Vols. Bombay: Education Department
15. Vandana Shiva. India Divided Diversity and Democracy
under Attack. Bangalore: Seven Stories Press, 2005, p. 77.
11
Pali Grammar
C.D. Naik
On reading Bharatsinha Upadhyaya's PaH Sahitya Ka

Itihas we come across the lines that Acharya Buddhaghosha
used Panini's ashtadhyayi in interpreting Buddhavacana,
which is unbelievable. Because in the same source it was
questioned and surmised that in technical sense Pali might have
no grammar or nirukti-shastra 1 except rules to explain terms
in Tipitaka called Veyyakarana before the time of
Buddhaghosha. The interesting thing about grammar was
Lord Buddha's exhortation to his disciples to preach dhamma
of perfect and pure celibacy both in spirit and letter. 2 In addition
to this the knowledge of letters was appreciated while stating
that the meaning of wrongly placed letters and words lead to
wrong sense and that of properly placed letters and words to
good sense. 3 Thus in Sthaviravada tradition there is balance
in relations between meaning and words. Letters are defined
as clothings of meaning in yasma panetam (vyanjanam)
attham vyanjayati, tasma evam vuttam"ti. 4 In Dhammapada
also a wise one is required to know language, poetics and
grammar in order to get rid of fetters. As far as non-canonical
Pali literature goes the most authoritative Milinda-Panha's
Bahiranidanakatha tells of the Elder Nagasena that he fIrst
studied Buddha-word in letters and later grasped it by meaning.
With regard to Pali literature the German poet Gette's remark
that literature is humanization of universe is cent per cent
applicable to Pali literature also.
Legal Code: Books in Pali Text
However, historically speaking the two Buddhist countries
namely Sri Lanka and Burma have been preservers of Pali
literature and carriers of new patterns of literary crafts from
early centuries to the present age. Take for example the Hindu
Code of Manusmriti which is one of the Hindu sacred books
against which Dr. Ambedkar revolted and drafted the

Constitution of India on just universal humanized norms and
late Hindi and Pali Buddhist monk scholar Bhadant Anand
Kausalyayan wrote Manusmriti Jalai Gai Kyon, had prototype
parallel in Buddhist Pali literature in Burma known as
Thammathat composed by Dhamma-Vilas (Sariputra) during
the reign of the King Narapati-Si-Thu (1167-1202).
Later in the thirteenth century the Burmese King Vagaru's
Legal code book by name Manu-Sar was translated into Pali
in sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century Dhammavilasa
Dhammasattha came in the edition of Manu-Dhammasattha.
In the eighteenth century Vanna Kyav-Din's Man-Vannana
was very popular in this genre. Such legal code books were
culminated in the nineteenth century by Rajbal Kyav-Din's
composition of Mohavicchedani in Pali versified form. This book
was based on law of Succession in Dayabhag tradition and is
in particular comparable to Dr. Ambedkar's Hindu Code Bill
based on the integration of both Dayabhaga and Mitakshar
legal norms prevalent in East India until the fiftees.
The authors of such works as the Dathavansa, the
Saddhammopayana, and the Mahabodhivansa made use of Pali
words derived from Sanskrit Amarakosa and used them as Pali.
However the list of such Pali words thus derived from Sanskrit
would not be a long one.
When about a thousand years afterwards, some pandits in
Ceylon began to write in Pali they were so familiar with the
method of writing on palm leaves that the works belonging to
this period were not intended to be learnt but to be read.
Dr. Ambedkar's Contribution Includes the sixteenth volume
of Writings and Speeches of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar
published by Government of Maharashtra on Pali Grammar
and Pali Dictionary.
Pali Literature and Grammar
In the above mentioned two Buddhist countries again the
tradition of literature related to grammar commenced. Today
whatever literature of grammar is in Pali, is classified into three
branches namely.
Pali Grammar 289
1. Kaccayana-grammar and its auxiliary literature.

2. Mog~allana-grammar and its auxiliary literature.
3. Aggavamsa's Saddaniti and its auxiliary literature. The
first one belonged to the seventh century and has 675
formulae, divided into 8 chapters, each describing four
matters namely.
(i) Sutta (formula, rule)
(ii) Vutti (description of Vritti to simplify formulae)
(iii) Payog (Use) and
(iv) Nyasa (mukhamattadeepani or interpretative notes)
all four composed by Kaccayana, Sanghannandi,
Bramadatta and Vimalabuddhi respectively. 6
Kaccayana-grammar is the earliest grammar of PaH
literature. Its author is Katyayan, who was different from others
of same name such as one of the Buddha's chief disciples
(600 B.C.), Panini'sAshtadhyayi sutras commentator (300 B.C.)
and the author of nettipakarana and petkopadesa.
In 1171 (Buddha Era 1715) Cchapada wrote commentary
on Kaccayana-Grammar called Suttaniddesa or Kaccayana-
sutta-niddesa.
Unlike Kaccayana-vyakarana the Moggallana grammar
and its subsidiary literature was far better in depth and
completeness having 817 formulae and six parts covering
sandhi, samasa, stri-pratyaya, taddhiya, kridant and verbs. But
the former and latter both are supposed to be following in the
footprinis of their precedents of sakkatagandha
(sanskritgrantha) such as Katantra-grammar (400 A.D.) and
commentary of Panini's Ashtadhyayi called Kashika vritti (700
A.D.).
I-tsing's Testimony on Role of Panini's Grammar in
Indian Education
In Chapter xxxiv of his Record of the Buddhist Religion, 1-
tsing also gives us information about the method of learning
followed in Indian educational establishments. According to him
Sanskrit grammar was always one of the basic studies of a
scholar. I-tsing says: "The old translators (of Sanskrit into

Chinese) seldom tell us the rules of Sanskrit language .. .I trust
that now a thorough study of Sanskrit grammar may clear up
many difficulties we encounter whilst engaged in translation. 7
It is clear from commentaries such as those of Yasomitra that
Panini's grammar formed a part of the basic training of a young
scholar. A scholar was required to study Panini's sutras,
Dhatupatha, Astadhatu, Unadi-sutras, Kasikavrtti, Curni
(perhaps the same as Patanjali's Mahabhasya), Bhartrhari's
sastra, Vakyapadiya and Pei-na or Bedavrtti, logic (Hetuvidya),
metaphysics (Abhidharma-kosa), N yaya-dvara-tarka-sastra,
inferences (anuman), and Jatakamala. 8 The priests learn
besides all the Vinaya works and investigate the sutras and
sastras as well. They oppose the heretics as they would drive
beasts (deer) in the middle of a plain and explain away
disputations as boiling water melts frost".9 In India, there are
two traditional ways in which one can attain to great intellectual
power. Firstly, by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect
is developed; secondly, the alphabet fixes one's ideas. In this way,
after a practice of ten days, a scholar feels his thoughts rise
like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has
once heard (not requiring to be told twice). This is far from
being a myth, for I myself have met such men".lO
Post-Buddhist Literature
According to N. Aiyaswami Sastri the age of the Gita is post-
Buddha period as it refers to Buddhist ideas like the instructions
regarding proper food, timely sleep and timely waking,11 which
undoubtedly refer to some of the most important Buddhist
teachings born of the Buddha's own personal experiences. The
opinion refered to in the lines of tyajyam dosavad ity eke karma
prahur manisinah 12 "some wise men say that the wrongful
action is to be abandoned" is exactly what the Buddha held.
The Anguttara, for example, says that the Buddha confessed
himself to be an advocate of inaction in the sense that he argued
in favour of abandoning wrongful act. 13 The fourfold food,
"annam caturvidham" mentioned in verse XV, 14, corresponds
to that of Buddhist literature (cattaro ahara). And it is hard to
believe that the original Mahabharata could have consisted of
Pali Grammar 291
the whole of the, Bhagavadgita. Nonetheless, it is possible that

the Gita was composed in Panini's time, 500-450 B.C., for the
grammarian alludes definitely to Bhakti and the Bhagavata
religion.
Perhaps, the most indisputable evidence in favour of
placing Panini in the post-Buddha period is his references to
Maskariparivrajaka, who was in all probability Makkhali
Gosala, the reputed religious leader of the Ajivaka sect.14 R.G.
Bhandarkar is of the opinion that it was composed not later than
the beginning of the 4th century B.C. Radhakrishnan pleads
for 500 B.C. in his Indian Philosophy15. Prof. Belvalker
expressed in a personal talk to N. Aiyaswami that he would be
inclined to assign to it a date prior to the Buddha. It is now
the generally accepted view that the worship of idols among
the Hindus is as old as Panini (500-450 B.C.).
Buddhaghosa's commentaries contain much ~f the matter
as old as Tipitaka itself and are rich in history and folklore and
abound in varied information which throws abundant light on
the social and moral conditions of ancient India. His own
creation, the Visuddhimagga is called as an Encyclopaedia of
Buddhist Doctrine.
Besides the Pali literature Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are
first in importance followed by Milinda Panha, the Questions
of King Milinda who is identified with certainty with Bactarian
King (Minander).
Dr. Ambedkar so loved Milinda Panha with its main
characters, Milinda and Nagasena that he established Milinda
Mahavidyalaya in Nagasena Grove in Aurangabad by his
Peoples Education Society, and promoted the study of Pali
language and literature and now it has been producing notable
scholars there in that domain.
Ambedkar's Pali Dictionary
Ambedkar's first M.A. Dissertation on Ancient Indian
Commerce referred to J ataka sources for prosperous ancient
Indian commercial relations with foreign countries and
described how Indian artisans formed into various guilds. In
his The Buddha and His Dhamma Ambedkar culled his material
from various canonical and commentarial Pali literature. He

adopted Buddhist spirit of Bahujana Hitaya Bahujana Sukhaya
in the drafting of Indian constitution. He codified the two
different social-legal traditions existing in India called
Dayabhaga and Mitakshar into one unified Hindu Code Bill
for regulating unequal status of man and woman and
establishing justice for both of them in matters of property,
marriage, divorce, succession, adoption, widow remarriage, and
civil rules of rites and ceremonies of betrothaL
About the periods of Jatakas T.W. Rhys Davids marked two
currents in Buddhist stories, earlier folklore and its subsequent
Pali versification both combined together in the Jatakas. He also
wrote about Robert Caesar Childers' first volume of his Pali
Dictionary published in 1872 that, "It is somewhat hard to
realize that he had at his command a few pages of the canonical
Pali books". When scholars had leisure to collect and study the
data to be found in this pre-Sanskrit literature it threw as much
light on the history of ideas and language as the study of names
and places threw upon the political divisions, social customs, and
economic conditions of ancient India.
Rhys Davids also made clear the importance and
significance ofPali Dictionary project when he wrote, "Anybody
familiar with this sort of work will know what care and patience,
what scholarly knowledge and judgement are involved in the
collection of such material, in the sorting, the sifting and final
arrangement of it, in the adding of cross references, in the
consideration of etymological puzzles, in the comparison and
correction of various faulty readings, and in the verification of
references given by others, or found in the indices".
Dr. Ambedkar was past 50 when he started the compilation
of the Pali Dictionary. It was an effort contrasted to the effort
of Dr. Samuel Johnson who attempted his dictionary of English
on the threshold of becoming the world language in 1755. 16
Describing the difference between the living and the dead
languages the editor, Vas ant Moon noted that, "Pali, though
the lingua franca of the Buddhist world, is a dead language.
In support of a living language, authority for correct sense and
words, is always at our elbow, in the chat of our domestics or
Pali Grammar 293
in the converse of the passengers at our street door, in colleges

of learned and in stablen of menials; in lanes of a city and in
remote hamlets. That is not the case in respect of a dead
language which has many pitfalls. Words and phrases of a dead
language, are exercises in reconstruction of history, they are
passages to times past and pathways to the sociology and
culture of the ages gone by. The dictionary of the Pali language
taken up by Dr. Ambedkar for compilation when he was 50,
shows his indomitable spirit to look into the past, in order to
know the present and to see the light for the future."
Conclusion
In the community in India which is newly restored to
Buddhists in the world when even the so simplest Pali aphorism
as 'atta dipo bhava' cannot be expected to print correctly on
their wedding card the Pali Grammar by Babasaheb Ambedkar
is a no small help. It also follows the Grammar tradition of
Kaccayana, Moggalana, Rupasiddhi and Saddaniti by giving
all possible contents of a grammar, especially parts of speech.
Compared to the world famous Sanskrit Grammar by Holy
Faith17 covering as many as 175 pages and A.K. Warder's 464
page-Introduction to Pali 18 the Pali Grammar of Dr. Ambedkar
fills the ocean into a pot by covering all fundamental rules of
grammar within 88 pages only.
It is to be investigated whether the Pali grammarians
followed in the footprints of Panini, Katyayana and Patanjali
or as they say thirteen pre-Panini and ten post-Panini Sanskrit
Grammarians, and whether the Pali language was closer to
Prakrit vernaculars developed from the beginning from its
supposed founder Valmiki to his successors Trivikram Pandit
(1400 A.D.), Srutasagar, Shubhacandra, Laxmidhar,
Chandrapandit, Sheshnag, Lankeshvar all in (1600 A.D.) and
Ramtarka Vagish and Markandeya in the 17th century 19 or it
had its own course of development in the Kosalan and Magadha
Kingdoms then and the Theravada Buddhist nations
afterwards.
In a time when Pali scholarship is limited to the old great
authors with its new young followers adhering to duplicate their
works this book is unique and milestone in the contemporary
revival movement of Pali and Buddhism in India and abroad.
References
1. (nirutti-interpretation of Pali Tipitaka terminology as per
rules of grammar).
2. (See mahavagga-sattham savyanjanam kevalaparipunnam
parisuddham brahmacariyam pakasetha).
3. (Anguttara-nikaya, pancakanipata, tatiya saddhamma
sammosa-sutta).
4. (Buddhaghosha, Atthasalini).
5. (Verse//191ITanhavaggo, Canto 24).
6. Bharatasinha Upadhyaya, Pali Sahitya Ka Itihas, Hindi
Sahitya Sammelan, Prayag, 2000, p. 747 and Minayef ed.
Journal of Pali Text Society, Gandhavansa, p. 59 from
Bharatasinha Upadhyay, Pali Sahitya Ka-Itihas.
7. Prof. P.Y. Bapat, ed. 2500 years of Buddhism, Publication
Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
Government of India, New Delhi, 1959, 4th rep. 1976, p. 168.
8. P.Y. Bapat, ed. ibid., (pp. 176-77).
9. P.Y. Bapat, ed. ibid., (p. 181).
10. P.Y. Bapat, ed. ibid., (pp. 182-83).
11. (Majjhima, VI, 16-17).
12. (Majjhima XVIII, 3).
13. (Anguttara, I, 62, Iv, 183).
14. (Cf. V.S. Agrawala, Panini, etc., pp. 358-60).
15. (I, p. 524).
16. (M.i,231(sutta, No. 35):Imesam Sanghanam Gananam
seyyathidam Vajjinam, Mallanam, etc.
17. (Geeta, 9,32).
18. See Arthur Waley, New Light on Buddhism in Medieval India
(Melanges chinois et bouddhiques), Vol. I (1931-32),
pp. 354-376.
19. Holyfaith, Sanskrit Vyakarnana with a Smile, Holy Faith
International, New Delhi.
20. A.K Warder, Introduction to Pali, PTS, Routledge and Kegan
Paul Ltd, London, 1974.
21. Acharya Devi Shankar Misra and Dr. Rajkishor Sinh,
Sanskrit Sahitya Ka Itihas, Lucknow.
Pali Grammar 295
Other Sources
1. Vasant Moon ed., Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Writings and
Speeches, Vol. 16, Education Department, Government of
Maharashtra, Mumbai 1998.
2. Rahula Sankrityayan, Pali Sahitya Ka Itihasa, Lucknow 1963,
3rd ed. 1992.
3. Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Unnattisa Din mein Pali,
Nagpur 1987.
4. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, The Buddha and His Dhamma, Mumbai
1957.
5. T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, The PTS's Pali-English
Dictionary, London 1921-25, 5th ed. 1972.
6. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1971.
7. H.B. Rangaree, Pali Is the Mother of Sanskrit, Nagpur 1994.
8. Jagdish Kashyapa, Moggallana Vyakaran in Hindi.
9. Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Dhammapada, Sarnath 1938,
Nagpur 1993.
10. Bhadant Anad Kausalyayan, Bouddha Jeevan Paddhati,
Buddha Bhoomi Prakashan, Nagpur, 3rd rep. 2000.
Bibliography
1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, The Buddha and His Dhamma, Mumbai

1957, rep. 1997,2001.
2. B.R. Ambedkar, The Untouchables, Mumbai 1948.
3. B.R. Ambedkar, Buddha and Future of His Dhamma, 1951.
4. B.R. Ambedkar, Rajyasabha, August-September 1954,
Parliamentary Debate.
5. D.R. Jatav, The Critics of Dr. Ambedkar, Surabhi Publication
1997.
6. H.S. Olcott, The Poor Pariah, Madras 1893.
7. Nagendranath Bose, Modem Buddhism and its Followers in
Orissa.
8. Arnold J. 'lbynbee, A Study of History, Vol. Iv, Oxford 1940.
9. C.D. Naik, Social and Political Thought of Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar, New Delhi, 2007.
10. C.D. Naik, Buddhist Development in East and West since
1950, New Delhi 2005.
11. V. Moon ed. The Writings and Speeches of Dr. Babasaheb
Ambedkar, Vol. I, Education Department, Government of
Maharashtra, Mumbai 1979.
12. V. Moon ed. Ibid. Vol. Ill.
13. V. Moon ed. Ibid. Vol. 11, Bombay 1982.
14. V. Moon ed. Ibid., Vol.16, Mumbai 1998.
15. Baatr DOlj Bazarov, Buddhists in the USSR, New Delhi 1979.
16. Stcherbatsky, Central Conception of Buddhism.
17. P.C. Ranasinghe, Buddha's Explanation of the Universe,
Ceylon 1957.
18. E.W. Hopkins, The Great Epic ofIndia, 1920.
19. P.L. Narasu and Winternitz Maurice, The Great Epic of
India, Vol. I, Calcutta 1927.
20. P. Laxmi Narasu, A Study of Caste, Madras 1922.
21. w.w. Hunter, Indian Empire 1983.
22. WaIter Elliot, The Untouchables, New Delhi 1948.
23. Jivanayakam, The Right Hand and Left Hand Castes,
Nagarcoil1913.
24. Hunter, Indian Empire.
25. Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol.
VI, Government Press, Madras 1909.
26. H. Dharmaratna, Buddhism in South India, Ceylon 1968.
27. Baburao Bagul, Dalit SahityaAjache Kranti Vigyan, Nagpur
1981.
28. Vmcente Fatone, The Philosophy of Nagrujuna, 1st ed., Delhi
1981, rep. 1991.
29. E. Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origin
to the Shakya Era, tr. Sara Webb-Boin, 1988.
30. Andrea Loseries Leick, Tibetan Mahayoga Tantra on Ethno-
Historical Study of Skulls, Bones and Relics, Delhi 2008.
31. Snellgrove 1959.
32. Robinson 1979.
33. N agrujuna, Uhapoha, Lucknow 1955.
34. Dr. Ram Kumar Ram, tr. F.T. Stcherbatsky, Bouddha Nyaya,
Varanasi 1969.
35. T.W.W. Rhys Davids ed. Yogavacara's Manual, London 1896.
36. G.C. Pande, Studies in Mahayana, India, Central Institute
of Higher Tibetan Studies, Sarnath, Varanasi 1933.
37. Hirakawa Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, From
Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana, tr. Paul Groner, rep. Delhi
1998.
38. Andrew Skilton, A Concise History of Buddhism,
Birmingham 1994.
39. Edward Conze, Prajaparamita Literature, Delhi 2000.
40. D.T. Suzuki, Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra, Taipei 1991.
41. Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching, N.Y.
198B.
42. Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, Pune 1996.
Bibliography 299
43. Nanamoli and Bodhi, M.655, Mass. 1955.
44. P.v. Bapat, @500 years of Buddhism, Delhi 1959, 4th rep.
1976,1997.
45. W. Pachow, Comparative Study of Pratimoksha, Delhi 2000.
46. R. Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism in its Modern
Development, New Delhi 1996.
47. Garma C.C. Chang tr. Paramita ofIngenuity, A Treasury of
Mahayana Sutra, Delhi 2002.
48. H.V. Guenther, Yuganadha, The Tantrik View of Life,
Benaras 1952.
49. H.V. Glasenapp, Die Entstehung des Vajrayana,
Zeitschr.d.deutch morgenland.Gesellschaft, Vol. 90, 560,
Leipzig 1936.
50. Advayavajra, Caturmudra, Yuganadha.
51. Prajnopaya-Vinischaya-Siddhi, Two Vajrayana Works,
Gaikwad Oriental Series, No. XLIv.
52. Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Dhammapada, Pakinnavaggo
canto 21, Verses 294, 295, Nagpur 1938.
53. W.v. Evans-Wentz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines.
54. Guru Gampopa, The Twelve Indispensable Things.
55. Hans Wolfgang Schumann, Buddhism, An Outline of its
Teachings and Schools, USA 1973.
56. Lusthaus, Dan, Buddhist Philosophy, Chinese.
57. Donald S. Lopez, Jr., Philosophy, East and West, Buddhist
Hermeneutics: A Conference Report, University of Hawaii
Press, Vol. 37, No. 1, January 1987.
58. N athan Katz, Philosophy, East and West, prasanga and
Deconstruction: Tibetan Hermeneutics and the yana
Controversy, Vol. 34, No. 2, University of Hawaii Press April
1984.
59. R.N. Mukerjee and Arunansu Ghosal, Social Thought from
Comte to Mukherjeee, New Delhi 2006.
60. V.T. Rajshekar, Dalits: The Black Untouchables of India,
Clarity Press, Inc. RDNE, Atlanta 1995.
61. J.K Banthia, Director of Census Operation, Maharashtra,
Part II-B(ii), Series-14, PCA for SCs, Mumbai 1993.
62. M.B. Kundale, Shaikshanik Tatvadnyana aani Shaikshanik
Samajshastra, 10th ed., Pune 2003.
63. Tara Chand, Development of Education System in India, New
Delhi 2004.
64. N.N. Oza ed. Chronicle Year Book, Noida 2009.
65. Dhananjay Keer, Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission, Bombay
1971.
66. Sanjay Prakash Sharma, B.R. Ambedkar: A Crus ad or of
Social Justice, Jaipur 2003.
67. Devidas Ghodeswar ed. Dalitanche Shikshan, Nagpur 1994.
68. Maik Krestovics, and Michael $teve 0, Financing Higher
Education in Global Market, New York 2004.
69. Vandana Shiva, India Divided Diversity and Democracy
under Attack, Bangalore 2005.
70. Bharatsinha Upadhyaya, Pali Sahitya Ka Itihas, Prayag
2000.
71. Arthur Waley, New Light on Buddhism in Medieval India,
(Melanges chinoi et bouddhiques), Vol. I, 1931- 32.
72. Holyfaith, Sanskrit Vyakarana with a Smile, New Delhi.
73. AK. Warder, Introduction to Pali, London 1974.
74. Acharya Devi Shankar Misra and Dr. Rajkishor Sinh,
Sanskrit Sahitya Ka Itihas, Lucknow.
75. Rabul Sankrityayan, Pali Sahitya Ka Itihas, Lucknow 1963,
ard ed. 1992.
76. Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan, Unnatisa Din mein Pali,
Nagpur 1987.
77. B.A Kausalyayan, Dhammapada, Sarnath 1938, Nagpur
1993.
78. B.A Kausalyayan, Bouddha Jeevan Paddhati, Nagpur, 3 rd
rep. 2000.
79. T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, The PTS's Pali-English
Dictionary, London 1921-25, 5 th ed. 1972.
80. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, Delhi 1971.
81. H.B. Rangaree, Pali Is the Mother of Sanskrit, N agpur 1994.
82. Jagdish Kashyap, Moggalana Vyakaran, (Hindi).
Bibliography 301
Scriptures
1. Revelation 19:20, Rev. 20:8.
2. Dhammapada 129, 130.
3. DN. II, 49, Vol. L.
4. DJI, MI.
5. Vajrasuci, Shloka 22-27.
6. Avatansaka (The Flower Ornament Scripture).
7. Anangavajra, Prajnopaya-Vmischaya-Siddhi, V. 25.
8. Yuganadha.
9. Guhya Samaja Tantra.
10. Buddhaghosa, Atthasalini.
" 11. Tanhavaggo, canto 24, verse 19.
12. Ma.ijhima, VI, XVIII.
',13. Anguttara I.
14. V. S. Agrawal, Panini.
15. Itivuttaka.
16. Geeta, 9:32.
Sutras
1. The Sutra ofHui Neng, Shanghai, November 2Pt, 1929.
2. Garma CC Chang, Maharatnakuta Sutra (Treasury of
Mahayana Sutra).
3. Tatiya Saddha.mma Sammosa Sutra, Pancakanipata,
Anguttaranikaya.
Cases
1. Hon'ble J.J. Bhau Wahane, Criminal Case No. 246/89.
Suresh Rathi Vs. State ofMah.
2. Judgement of the Supreme Court (Full Bench), P.B.
Gajendragadkar, C.J., K.N. Wanchoo, H. Hidayatullah,
Rajhubar Dayal and J.R. Mudholkar, Punjabrao Vs. Dr. D.P.
Meshram, AIR 1965, 1179 delivered by Hon'ble J.R.
Mudholkar.
3. Judgement of the Bombay High Court of Judicature at
Bombay bench at N agpur in Smt. Shakuntala Vs. Nilkanth
and Others, Criminal Appeal No. 29 of 1970 decided on 25th
October 1972 by Justice Masodkar.
4. Babi W/o Jayant Jagtap Vs. Jayant Mahadeo Jagtap,
Criminal Appeal No. 815 of 1979, the Bombay High Court
Judicature, Bombay, Hon'ble R.S. Bhonsale J. decided and
delivered the judgement on 28-29 January 1981,
Maharashtra Law Journal, p. 815, 1981.
5. Rekha Vs. Ashok and others, II 1985 Divorce and
Matrimonial Cases Criminal Revision No. 5 of 1984 decided
on 18th September 1984 with Hon'ble Dhabe J. present.
Internet Surfing
1. IFM corporate, 5.10.2008.
2. Dr. Anad Teltumbde, Globalisation and the Dalits, 5.10.2008.
3. On Tantra, 9th March 2009.
4. Rotledge, http://www.rep.routledge.com. 25.5. 2005.
5. dalits@ambedkar.org
6. shuraisasai@rediffmail.com
7. www.ambedkar.org
Journals
1. EPW Research Foundation (1994): Three years of Economic
Reform in India, Bombay.
2. World Buddhism, Colombo, November 1961.
3. Young East, Tokyo, Summer 1962.
4. Minayef ed. Journal of Pali Text Society.
Letters
1. Loknath's letter to Babasaheb Ambedkar, 1936.
2. Ravikant Shinde, An Open Letter to Rajdeep Sardesai, 3pt
October, 2006.
3. President, Ambedkar Centre for Justice and Peace, fro.m
UN, 10th August 2001.
Articles
1. Sankrityayan, About Ambedkar, Dharmayug.
2. Dr. K Jamanadas, Some Self Introspection on Future of
Buddhism, November 7, 2001.
3. An Overview of India's Buddhist Movement, Friday, October
6,2006.
Bibliography 303
Leaflets
1. Leaflet issued by All India Canara Bank, SC and ST
Employees Union, Nagpur 1986.
2. President, All India Buddha Gaya Mahabodhi Mahavihara
Action Committee, Indora Buddha VIhara, Nagpur, India.
Dictionaries
1. Shambala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen.
2. William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous, A Dictionary of
Chinese Buddhist Terms.
Encyclopaedias
1. The Balfour Encyclopaedia ofIndia, Vol. Ill.
2. Whitaker's World of Facts, New Delhi 2007.
3. E. Craig ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, London.
Speech
1. Kausalyayan spoke at Morris College, Nagpur 1984.
Dissertations
1. P.N. Aglave, Modernisation in the Social Life of Buddhist
Community in Nagpur City, Nagpur University 1984.
Newspapers
1. Free Press, Indore, 10.10.200.
Conversation
1. Conversation with W. Rahula, World Buddhism, Ceylon
1969.
Index
A contributions, 74-89
Abidhamma Pitika, 176 to Fundamental Rights,
Absolute - realization/identity 250
with, 121 To Directive Principles, 252
Absolute concept of, 125-26 social organizations
Active and Passive elements, established by, 258-59
124 sickness, 261
Adam Smith's Wealth of Ambedkarite Buddhist Society,
Nations, 41, 54 74
Adibuddha, 135 Ambedkar's
Advayavajra, 137 embracing Buddhism, 201
Agriculture Gujarat connection, 110
and future vi~ion, 51 disguise as Parsi, 110
Scientific Approach, 51 ideology in his Social
Ambedkar Dr B.R., 40, 96, 131 Organizations, 262-65
first encounter with perspective, 90
Buddhism, 75 role in Buddhism, 72-73
education, 75 -76 adoption of Buddhism , 73
as law minister, 247 Anand Kausalyayn Dr, 73
as Chairman of Drafting Anangavajra, 137
Committee, 249
Paradox, 138
presenting of Draft
Angarik Dharampal (Sri
Commission, 249
Lanka),72
conversion, 82
revival of Buddhism by, 39
mission/motto, 83
Anguttara, 290
Philosophy, 54-55,61-62,83
Ashvaghosha, 120
initiation to Buddhism, 172
writings, 120
resigning from Nehru's
Asia Buddhist Population - 2007
cabinet, 249
Country-wise Table, 65-68
published works, 250
Asia's contribution to Blessing to bride and
Buddhism, 62 bridegroom - stanzas at end
Asoka's Rock edict, 25 M wedding ceremony, 168
Contribution to Buddhism, Bodh Gaya inscription, 31
25 Buddhist temple change to
Atrocities augmentation under Shaivite administration, 39
issue, 232
reform regime, 50
Bodhipaksya dharmas practice,
B
129
Babasaheb Ambedkar National
Bodhisattva, 118, 121 path
Institute of Social Sciences,
practice, 129 male and
Mhow,74
female, 137
Babi vs Jagtap 1981 judgement,
doctrine, 128
183
Bouddha Vihara, 184
Babi vs State of Maharashtra,
183 BPL Population decline
countries, 53
Babu Jagjivan ~am Chhatravas
Yojana,274 Brahma rite, 148
Bahishkrut Hitkarni Sabha, 259 Brahmana and Shudra
marriage, 148
Bahujan Samaj Party, 262
Breakthrough of Unconscious,
Bakunin, Michael, 84 94
Barua,39 Bride duties, 187
Bauls,38 Bridegroom duties, 187
Bayazid, Bistani, 84 Buan-an ( Chinese), 98
Beauvoir, Simon De, 84 Buddha Preachings, 171
Below Poverty Line figures, Buddha Gautam, 24
India, 109
Buddhaghosa's commentaries,
Bengal Buddhism survival, 38 291
Bernard Bolzanio, 84 Buddhas concept of marriage,
Bertrand Russel, 84 177
Bhagavadgita, 290-91 Buddhism growth/decline -
history, 70-71
law, 112
as Triple Gem, 70
Bhandare Prof on notional
removal of untouchability, South India, 32
227-28 attitude to marriage, 169
Bhikkhu, 184-85 contribution to society, 93
Bhumi period, 129 in art and architecture, 93
Black money in India, 58 decline, 25, 27-28
Index 307
development impetus, 74 population, 225
expansion, 27 growth,229
rise I fall, 24,25,27-28 Table 2001, 229-30
Buddhism representation in
spread in other countries, Parliament conspiracy, 235-
25 36
Buddhist Succession Act 2007, Buddhist
189 sculptures ( famous), 111
Intestate succession, 191 Society of India, 79
Rules of succession of Buddhist Tantrism, 115, 123
Buddhist Female, 195 Buddhist thinkers famous
Rules of succession of names, 111
Buddhist Male, 192 C
Buddhist Capitalism! Capitalist order, 41
requisites of, 172 Caste
and Hindu destruction, 172 laws, 30
and non-Buddhist (marriage Caste System, 29
between), 188
and Untouchability
Ashok Chakra, 79 Ambedkar on, 229
converts as weaker section, Ceremonies, 185
204
Certificate of Buddhist
cultural impact, 92 Marriages, 188
demography contribution to Chccha Nama, 33
by Ambedkar, 74-75
Chagtai Khanate, 34
Educational Institutions
development, 76-77 Chakmas,38
group status, 206 Chalukya Dynasty, 36
difficulties, 207-208, 217 Child - parent relation, 81
Law - conceptI evolution, Child Marriage Restraint Act
171 source, 173 1929 and Amendments, 215
Marriage China Buddhists, 64
need for codification, 182 Chinese
rite, 150 Hermeneutical structure,
134
conditions, 186
scholars, 27
population in India ( 1961),
73 Christian - population, 23
Christopher Queen on and reservation, 42 poverty,
Ambedkar, 61-62 42
CHT Buddhism, 38 literacy 1951-2001, 109
Collecti veness/collecti vi ty Dara Shikoh efforts on revival
feeling, 112-13 of cultural heritage, 108
Commercialization of Dayabhag and Mitakshara, 292
education, 49 Deeksha Bhoomi, 201
Committee on Elimination of Deficit, 54
Racial Discrimination,
Defilements of society, 81
(CERD),235
Democracy - Ambedkar on, 62
Communism, 83
Democratic spirit of Buddhism,
Conditions for a Buddhist 90-91
Marriage, 186
Dependant Origination, 69-70
Conjugal Union - Manu on, 149
Depressed Classes Conference
Conservative Sangha, 69 Kolhapur Ambedkar
Constitution of India and speech,259
Ambedkar, 77 vs Depressed Classes Education
Constitution of USA, 255 Society, 272
Interpreting, 256
Dhamma
Constitution of USA
meaning, 175
interprp.ting, 257
distinction with Dharma,
Press Emergency Laws, 175
257
and Vinaya, 24
Contribution to Bill on
Dhammapada, 174, 176
Education Grants, 268
Verses (294 and 295), 137 on
Conversion of Ambedkar, 82
mother and father, 137 on
Conversion Vows (22), 153-55 King and Kingdom, 137-38
Countries with Buddhism, 25-26 Dhanyakataka (Vijayawada), 36
Crime against Dalits, 231 DharamsalalMcLeodganj, 40
Csoma de Koros, 116 Dharma and Dhamma, 175
symposium in memory, 116 Diksha (embracing of Buddhism
Cultural Heritage revival, 108 by Ambedkar), 173
Cultural Heterogeneity, 241 Directive Principles of State
Customs meaning, 185 Policy, 252, 257-58
D Discipline for girls, 167
Dahir King defeat, 32-33 Divorce, 169
Dalits Divyavadana, 27, 30
Index 309
Doctrine of implied power~, 257 F
Dowry, 153, 214 Families avoided in marriage (
Dowry, 214 Manu),149
Dravidian speech, 26 Female / male in Buddhist
Tantrayana, 124
Dzog Chen, 131-32
Female Bodhisattvas, 136
E
Fertility Rate (India), 216
Economic Crisis Latin America,
43 Five Precepts of Buddhism, 173-
'I!i" \ 74
Education
Food. Supply, 53
impact of globalisation on,
50 Franz , Brentano, 84
as unequalizer, 111 impact, Friend to friend duty, 177
112 Fundamental Rights, 203, 255
Commission and Policies, Ambedkar's contribution,
272 250
Policies/ Programmes for limitations on, 255
weaker sections, 273
G
Policy makers - institutions!
Gaikwad Sayajirao, 275
organizations, 282
Gandharva rite, 148
System - present scenario,
278-79 Gender Development Index, 109
weaker section, 267, 269, Gender inequality, 107
272 Genghis Khan, 34
Educational Institution - impact Gift of daughter in marriage,
of globalisation, 49 148
Educational Institutions / Girls enrolment percentage
societies established by 1980-2006, 279
Ambedkar, 272
Gita on Buddhism, 25
Eight Fold Path, 56, 101, 173
Globalisation
Eligibility criteria for
Findings/suggestions, 57-59
performing Buddhist
Marriage, 187 impact
Employment and globalisation, on food security, 45
47 on Dalits, 46
Ethics, 85 in India, 42
of Buddhism, 95 strategies and their impact,
European scholars study, 25 48
Goal and way out of suffering, Holeyas in Karnataka, 71
139 Honkong Buddhists, 64
Goal of new Buddhist Human Development index,
movement, 99 109
Government duties, 55 Hun invasion, 31
Gujarat Husband's duties towards wife,
poor percentage, 108 177
Ambedkar experience, 110 Hypergamy, 213
Gupta Empire, 29 I
Buddhism under, 31 Iceland Economic crisis, 44-45
H Ignorance of Buddhist Rites,
Hans Wolfgang Schumann , 139 240
on goal and way out, 139 Ignorance, 87
Harshavardhana Kingdom end, llevajra Tantra, 132
32
Illicit sex, 169
Hermeneutics, 130
Illiteracy, 240
Methodologies, 131
IMF,42
Text/adept based, 132
and World Bank
strategies, 134
Programme on Macro
three types, 135 Economic stabilization, 43
Hindu Code Bill, 216, 292 Independent Labour Party, 260
and women empowerment, India Buddhists, 64
270
Indian Buddhist Societies state-
Hindu ideology wise, 79
evolution, 35 Indian Divorce Act 1869, 216
upsurge, 36 Indian Paganism, 37
Hindu Marriage Act - 1955, 216 Inequalities co-existence under
Hindu Marriage Act - aspects, reforms, 51
181-8~ ,
Inflation, 53 an
Hindu Marriage Disabilities globaIisation, 47
Removal Act 1946, 215
Intercourse with mother and
Hindu Marriage enactments,
sister, 137-38
215
International Human Rights
Hindu Marriage system, 213
Organisation Reports, 23
Hinduism - population, 23
Introduction of Bride and
History of Indian Buddhism, bridegroom, 151
117
Index 311
Introduction to Buddhist Madhyamika, 142
Esoterism, 123 Magadhi,26
Islam - population, 23 Maha Bodhi Society, 39, 72
Islam arrival, 37 Mahabodhi Mahavihar Temple
I-tsing's testimony on Panini management issue, 39, 232
Grammar's role, 289 Mahabodhi Temple as World
Iyodhi Dass, 71 Heritage Site Dedication
J Ceremony -2002, 90
Jains,205 Mahamangala Sutra discourse
in wedding, 160 - 61
Jan Sangh, 201
Mahamudra, 131, 137
Japan Buddhists, 64
Mahaparinirvana Sutra, 134
Jatakas, 292
Maharashtra Buddhists, 73
K
Mahars, 226
Kaccayana grammar, 289
Mahatma Phooley, 72
Kalchakra system of Buddhism,
115 Mahayana Buddhism, 25, 69-70
Kapalapa (the man with the Mahayana
skull), 119 siddhi of, 119 Shrodatapadashastra, 120
Kashmir - Buddhism in, 39 Mahayana Sutra, 127
Keynes, John Maynard, 41, 54 MahayanalHinayana concepts,
125
Knowledge - empirical/absolute,
142 Mahinda ( missionary), 26
Konkanapura, 35 Mahmud of Ghazni, 33
Korea Buddhists, 64 Malalasekere, G.P., 97
L Malaysian Buddhists, 64
Lankavatra- Buddha on, 133 Male and female
Laos Buddhists, 64 principles, popularity, 136-
37
Laws of Manu, 147
Bodhisattvas, 137
Ledi Sayadaw, 97
Mantrayana system of
Leibnitz's doctrine of theodicy, Buddhism, 115, 117
88
Manu's law, 112
Licchavis, 24
Manusmriti condemning by
Love of money, 54 Ambedkar, 260, 287
Lumbini,63 Manusmriti Jalai Gai Kyon, 287
M Manusmriti, 29, 147
Marginal Utility neo-classical Modern education impact, 112-
theory, 107 13
Marriage Moggallana grammar, 289
between upper to lower Monastries Viharas
castes, 147 destruction, 37-38
Buddhist attitude, 169 Mongolia Buddhists, 63
breakdown reasons, 169-70 Mongols, 34
importance, 213 Monks scarcity, 241
Marriage Moral and ethical conduct of
Buddhist, 174
object and reasons, 178-79
Mughal Rule, 35
Principlesl Rituals
(Buddhists), 150-51 Muhammad Ghori, 34
ills of, 152 Muhammad Khilji, 34
validity of Buddhist N
converts, 181 Nagarjuna, 131
Martin Buber on primary Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamika
attitudes, 84 Karika, 141
Marxism and Buddhism, 97 Nagpur
Master's duty to servant, 177 Hindus categories, 211-12
Material Mode of Language, 85 SC/ST, 211-12
M a teri al i s m-d i al ecti cal Population, 219
materialism, 85 District growth of Hindus
Maurya, A.S., views, 119 and tribals, 210
Mauryan Empire - Buddhism, population constituents,
29 211
Maya/illusion ( Prapanca), 141 mass conversion ceremony,
40
Media black out on Dalit news,
231 SC/ST Population Literacy,
220
Meditation, 97
Occupation, 221, 223-25
text, 120
Sex Ratio, 222
and Buddhism, 94
History, 199-201
Meditation, 97
UrbanlRural Population of
Miharakula King (Huns), 31 Religious Communities
Milinda Panha, 291 1961,218
Minimum Level of Competency Nagpur-Kamtee monuments on
Goal,269 Ambedkarism, 74
Index 313
Nation al Integr ation Pali Diction ary. Ambedkar, 292

Confer ence, 228 Pali langua ge, 26
Nation al Overse as Schola rships Pali Litera ture and gramm ar,
for SC studen ts, 275 288-89
Drawb acks, 275 Pali Sahity a Ka Itihas, 287
Selection, 277 Pancha shila of Buddh a, 93, 100
.Natio nal Policy on Educa tion recitati on in weddings, 155
1986,2 73 Panini 's Sutras study, 290
Revised 1992, 273
Param ita (perfection), 81, 129
Nehru, Jawah arlal, 249, 259 of ingenu ity and skill, 130
Neo Buddh ists status / poverty of Mahay ana, 128
level, 206-207
Paren ts duties toward s
Nepal Buddh ists, 63 childre n, 176
N ettipr akarn a and
Patimo kkha Sutta, 129
Petkop adesa, 133
Peacef ul Coexistence sects, 117
Nikola i Bukha rin critiqu e on
margin al utility school, 84 Pepsi Co introd uction and
impact on employ ment, 47
Nirma nakyas , 131
Perfec tion (Param ita), 81, 128-
Nirvan , 102 30
in Mahay ana / Hinay ana, Perfect ion of medita tion, 129
125-26
Philosophy of Tantra , 117
Non-at tachme nt attitud e of, 96
Philos ophy role in Buddh ist
Non-existence of self / things in though t, 134
world, 142
Politic al protec tion of
North Indias popula r religions, minori ties - Ambed kar, 202
37
Polygyny, 213
North Vietna mese Buddh ists,
62 Poor composition, 108
o Positiv e and negativ e trinity in
Buddh ism, 89
Olcott and Blava tsky
conversion to Buddh ism, 71 Post-m ortal Nirvan a, 126
Order of righteo usness , 86 Pover ty percen tage countr y-
wise, 44
Ornam ents in Tantri k
Pover ty allevia tion
Buddh ism, 118
p
progra mmes impac t of
globalisation, 48
Pakist an Buddh ists, 63 Poverty, 207, 239
Palas Dynasty, 33
in India causes, 108 Recession world scenario 2008,
Prajapatya rite, 148 44-45
Prajna (Right Understanding) Reiho Masunaga, 99
Path, 101 Reimbursment of fees to poor
and Shakti, 123 students initiative-2002, 282
Paramita, 137 Religious
Prakrit,26 Demography in India -
1951-2001,217-18
Pre-Ma tric- Po s t-Ma tric
Scholarships for weaker revolution, 57
sections, 273-74 social value judging, 61
Press Act : Serction 4, 253 violence, 23
Primaeval Buddha, 121 Report! Study of Status and
Principle of Reservation, 203 Problems of Buddhists in
Nagpur, 209
Principle of Social Justice, 204
objective, 209
Privatisation impact on Dalits,
41 profile of respondents, 236-
37
Problems of Buddhists, 238-44
Republican Party of India RPI ,
Proselytization, 33 261
Public Distribution System, 45, Reservation
53
and financial assistance in
impact of globalisation on,
education, 49
45-46
for Neo Buddhists, 228
Public Safety Laws made by
Supreme Court, 254 impact of globalisation on,
49
Pusyamitra Sunga, 27, 30
of Backward classes in
persecution of Buddhists, 27 Public services and
R Educational Institutions,
Racial discrimination 251
Buddhism on, 91 Revival Movement of Buddhism
Rajatarangini reference to in India, 40
Buddhism, 39 Revolution in ancient vs
Rajiv Gandhi National modern society, 56-57
Fellowship, 276 Right understanding! thought,
Raw material recycling/ 87
exhaustion, 51 Righ teousness practic o
Realization of absolute, 119 necessary functions, 55
Index 315
Roots of all evil social deeds, 86 ,Shashanka Gouda, 36
S Shil (good character)
Sadhaka (intercourse view), importance, 270
137 Shingon school theory
Sadhakas vital conciousness, Kukai's, 134
121 Siberia Buddhists, 63
Sahajayana system of Siddhas mission of, 135-36
Buddhism, 115 Singapore Buddhists, 62
Sakya Pandit, 131 Sinhalese, 26
Sakyas government, 24 Small - holdings evils, 54
Samadhi path of Buddhism, 101 Social Application of Buddhism,
Sangha, 24, 69 80
Sankrityayana Mahapandit R., Social Atrocities ( India) victims
98 , impact, 108
Satipatthanasutta, 120 Social Buddhism, 61
Satya Shodhak Samaj, 72 Social Organizations
SC/ST Commission on status of established by Ambedkar -
SC/ST, 226-27 their thoughts and
activities, 262-65
Schools of Buddhism, 69
Social Philosophy in India, 75
Schools of Mahayana
Buddhism, 128 Social Relationship ethics, 176
Scientific methods in Buddhism, Social Religion, 61
97 Society impact of globalisation
Scientific Proof and Buddhism, on, 48
92 Society (contemporary), 92
Secondary Education Soma Bosatsu, 98
Commission (1964-66), 273 South- India Buddhism, 72
Secularists and democrats, 82 Southborough Committee -
Securing rights of depressed Ambedkar in, 259
classes in Fundamental Southern Buddhism, 69
Rights - Ambedkar, 271
Soviet Union Buddhists, 62
Sentient beings, 81
Special Marriage A~t 1872 and
ShaktilShaktism concept, 123, Amendments, 215
125
Sri Lanka Buddhists, 63
Shakuntla vs Nilkanth
judgement by High Court, Starte Committee, 202-203,
181, 183 205,270
316 Buddhism and Dalits : Social Philosophy and 1}aditions
State - cum - bank ideology, 41- Theory of goals/ends, 89
42 Theory of Meaning/
Students duties towards Understanding, 89
teachers, 177 Theravada and Mahayana
SufJlBhakti Movement, 38 connections, 127
Suggestions to resolve Theravadi Buddhism, 69-70
problems, 244 concepts, 125, 127
Suicide of Dalit lIT student, 113 Thoughts identification, 87
Sunga dynasty, 31 Tibet Buddhism history, 122
Sunyata, 132 Tibet Buddhists, 63
Supreme Court judgement on Tibetan exile, 40
marriage, 180 Tibetan Mahayayoga Tantra,
Suresh Rathi vs State of 118
Maharashtra on Marriage Timur Lane, 34
contract, 179
Training of the mind, 55
Suttapitaka, 176
Tripitaka, 174-76
T
Turkish invaders destruction,
Taiwan Buddhists, 63 37
Tantra- meaning, 142 u
Tantra school in Tibet- U Ba Swe, 97
foundation, 123
Uggaha's daughters advice to by
Tantrik Buddhism in Tibet, 118 Buddha, 166-67
Tantrism study, 25 Unemployment among SCs -
Taranatha writings, 37 STs, 208
Teachers duties towards Unemployment, 54, 240
children, 176 UNICEF on poverty perc~ntage
Teleological ethical theory, 89 country-wise, 44
Test of reality, 83-84 University Education
Commission (1952-53), 273
Testamentary Succession, 198
University Reforms Committee,
Thailand Buddhists, 63 268
The Buddha and His Dharma, Untouchables Revolt, 72
50, 61, 102, 176, 291
Upasaka, 184
The Problems of the Indian
US Economic ideology - history,
Buddhists, 217
41-42
Theocratic States, 81
v
Theodicy - doctrine of, 88
Vajjis,24
Index 317
Seven rules of conduct, 24 Boons (8) granted by

Buddha, 166
Vajra Circle of initiation, 121
Vital force, 138
Vajracchedika Sutra, 80, 94
W
Vajrasuchi, 71
Wealth of Nations, 41, 54
Vajrayana , 118
Wedding ceremony, 155-60
Art, 121
verses, 156-57
Varna system, 29
Wife's duties towards husband,
Vasudaiva Kutumbakam, 112 177
Vedanta and Buddhism, 119 Wisdom, 177
Vedic Society, 100 World Buddhist leaders, 96-97
weaknesses, 100 World Conference against
Venkatraman vs the State of racism - 2000, 232-34
Madras, 251 X
Vijayavardhane, D.C., 97 Xuanzang's Report, 35
VIkramsila, 123 destruction, 37 y
Vimalkirtinividesh Sutra, 130 Yajnavalkya, 29
Vinayapitaka, 174, 176 Yogacara, 142
Visakha (women disciple)
Yogacaries and Svatantrikas
~ wedding, 162-63
hermeneutics, 134
ten admonitions to
Z
interpretations, 163-65
Zen Yamada Mumon, 98
children! family, 165

Naik - Buddhism and Dalits Social Philosophy and Traditions (2010) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Naik - Buddhism and Dalits Social Philosophy and Traditions (2010) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BUDDHISM AND DALITS

SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY AND TRADITIONS

All rights reserved. No Part of this book may be

Published in 2010 in India by

Lasser Type Setting by: Quick Media, Delhi

Stude nts-D rawba cks-R ajiv Gandh i Natio nal

Buddhism is nothing if it is not social. A man from Kapilavastu

Let me express my deepest gratitude for greatest services

Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions is the

Religious violence in India includes acts of violence by

The Rise, Fall and Revival of Buddhism

to take Buddhism to Central Asia, China, Japan and Tibet in

Hun invasion. A continuing decline occurred after the fall of

affairs of state, they were useful for rulers as they promoted

Guptas. Indian social structure developed in a manner opposite

successor Agnimitra. Archaeological evidence is scarce and

Harsha: In the north and west collapse of Harshavardana's

The Chach Nama records a couple of instances of conversion

art. Mahayana Buddhism flourished under the Palas between

destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas in which

of Buddhists coexisting with a similar number of non-Buddhists,

to Vishnu and an allegory to the defeat of Buddhism and

conversion of Ghazan to Islam in 1295, the backlash resulted

Chakma and Buddhists by Islamists in East P'aki~tan. The

and templ es that had been destro yed in variou s period s of

How globalization helped socio-cultural movements of the

Thus, the real economy of joint efforts of state and bank

suffer from backwardness in education, discrimination in

first national casualty of financial meltdown revealed from

of rice and wheat and by passing it on to consumers. Off-take

contributed to the rise of general price level also. Devaluation

Restru cturin g of compa nies under compe titive pressu re

preservation and religious freedom, economic upliftment and

undertakings and Joint Venture Companies together share

Impact of Caste and Culture

way our throw-away industrial society must recycle the whole

difference between the procurement price and issue price

me is this, that the deficit in the budget is not due to any

At one end of the Revolution was the antique society with

inequality defies any statistical description and depth.

accelerated development of the disadvantaged people

Social Message of Buddhism

transformation through Buddhist strategy and goals and

III Bhutan 2,250,014 (97 Buddhism since 8 C.E.

VI Pakistan 1,64,742 (0.1) Gandhar Buddhism ~

population population other Religions .....

(Percentage to Practiced in the country

S.N. }ear Coun!ry Thtal Buddhist History of Buddhism and

IV North Korea 15,106,650 (63.5) Buddhism since 372 C.E. .g

VII Taiwan 24,522,395 (50) Revival of Buddhism ~

From the above table it is clearly seen that India as a part

(Vijnaptimatrata) occasionally took it to mean "the process of

and sacrifices. 5 In 700 A.D. Kumaril Bhatta, a Bihari Brahmin

of Mylai Seeni entitled "Bauddhamum Tamilum"9. Popularity

of religion disillusioned his mind about Sikkhism, Islam and

'million. Buddhists got organized under the world fellowship of

Buddhists in India were a few and far between. Before the

After his graduation in Mumbai he went to America and

1. Siddharth Night High Siddhartha College of Arts, Siddhartha

Schools Colleges Hostels

14. Milind College of Arts, 1963

15. Dr. Ambedk ar College of Law,

4. Cons tituti on of India : The Pream ble of the