Contemporay research spectrum journal, march 2016 by Ajit Mondal

CRSJ, Volume 2, Issue 2, March, 2016

ISSN 2454 - 8987

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal

2012

COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT KALYANI, DISTRICT – NADIA, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

ISSN 2454 - 8987

CRSJ, Volume 2, Issue 2, March, 2016

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM

2012

CI UN L OF E

T CO

International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal

U LIG

COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT KALYANI, DISTRICT – NADIA, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal Volume 2, Issue 2, March, 2016 [ISSN 2454 – 8987]  EDITOR: Dr. Ajit Mondal - Department of Education, Surendranath College for Women (University of Calcutta), Kolkata, Pin – 700009, West Bengal, India EDITORIAL BOARD  Dr. Ramana Maram - Department of Political Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India  Professor Kalyan Kumar Sarkar - Department of Political Science, Kanchrapara College, Kanchrapara, West Bengal  Professor Basudeb Halder - Department of Philosophy, Surendranath College for Women, Kolkata, West Bengal  Dr. Asha Bhandari - Faculty of Policy Science, National Law University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India  Dr. Ritu Bakshi - Department of Educational Studies, Central University of Jammu, J&K.  Dr. A. Subramanian - Department of Education, University of Madras, Chennai, India  Dr. Raminder Singh - Department of Education, Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda, Punjab, India  Dr. Mrinal Mukherjee - Department of Education, Bankura University, Bankura, West Bengal, India  Dr. S. K. Panneer Selvam - Department of Education, Bharathidasan University, Tamil Nadu  Vijay Prasad Jayshwal - Kathmandu School of Law & Human Rights Clinic and Justice, Dadhikot, Nepal

BOARD OF ADVISORS               

Prof. Tony Bush - Faculty of Educational Leadership, University of Nottingham, UK Prof. Tarak Kumar Pan - Shiksha Bhavana, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan, West Bengal Prof. Sudharshana Rana - Department of Education, Himachal Pradesh University, HP Prof. J. C. Soni - Dean, Faculty of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Arunachal Pradesh. Prof. Sanat Kumar Ghosh - Department of Education, Rabindra Bharati University, WB Prof. Hemlata Talesra - Smt. K. B. Dave College of Education, Gujarat, India Prof. Jayanta Mete - Department of Education, University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India Prof. Nupur Sen- Department of Education, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, UP Prof. Madhumita Bandyopadhyay -School of Non-Formal & Formal, NUEPA, New Delhi. Dr. Jaya Singh - Department of Social Science, NCERT, New Delhi, India Prof. (Mrs.) Haseen Taj – Department of Education, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India Dr. Anjali Mehta - Department of Education M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat Dr. Gurkirat Kaur - Department of Education, Desh Bhagat University, Patiala, Punjab Dr. Shyam Sundar Bairagya – Department of Education, Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan Dr. S. R. Mohapatra - Centre for Juridical Studies, Dibrugarh University, Assam, India

 Dr. Ruby Ann L. Ayo - Bicol University, College of Social Sciences & Philosophy, Philippines

 Prof. Nityananda Pradhan- Department of Extension Education, NERIE, NCERT, Shillong  Prof. Mahes Nath Parajuli- Department of Educational Leadership & Development Studies, Kathamandu Univiversity, Nepal

From the Desk of Editor ================================================================= The age we live in is the age of speed and information. In tune with the spirit of the modern era, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal is intended to cater the needs in terms of knowledge production. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal is an attempt to bring out research work in the areas of English Literature, Education, Social Science, Commerce, Life Science, Physical Science, ICT and Management, Law and to encourage both the students, researchers and the concerned teachers in research. Thus, this journal will be playing its function as a vehicle for disseminating research papers, innovative articles, Case Studies etc. in all subject areas by the academicians, research scholars, resource persons and practitioners with substantial experience and expertise in their own respective fields. This issue contains scholarly conceptual articles and research papers on various aspects of English literature, Education, Physics, Law, Philosophy, History, Geography, Political Science, Management, Business Administration, and Commerce etc. In order to keep the length of the issue within capacity, it has been necessary to be very selective in the incorporation of articles. The ideas expressed in the journal are of the authors. The Editorial Board of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal holds no responsibility in this regard. The Editor conveys thanks to the members of the Editorial Board, Advisory Board and Peer Reviewers who have extended their cooperation in bringing out the Volume - 2 and issue - 2, March, 2016 of the journal and also is grateful to all contributors. Suggestions and constructive criticism for further improvement of the journal will be thankfully received. We look forward to your reply in the form of suggestions, views and articles for the next issue.

Editor Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal [ISSN 2454 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 8987]

GUIDELINES FOR THE CONTRIBUTORS 

Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal an international, bi-annual, multidisciplinary, Refereed Print Journal, invites articles from Educationist, Academician, Research Scholar, and Student & Journalist.

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Maximum length of the full paper should be of 10 pages in A4 size paper. Extra page (More than 10 pages will bear additional publication charge).

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Articles can be sent through CD / Email (for English articles use MS-Word, Font Times New Roman, Size 12, Line Spacing 1.5, Margin of 1 inch in all sides.

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The article must accompany declaration signed by authors that article has not been published elsewhere and that it is being submitted exclusively to Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal.

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The article should have author’s name, single designation & affiliation and E-mail address.

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Each article should contain the following essential elements – Abstract, Introduction, Related Study, Research Questions / Hypothesis, Objectives, Methodology, Tools used Data Analysis, Findings, Discussions and References alphabetically arranged in APA Format. Graphs, if any, should be sent in editable format.

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Any legal dispute pertaining to the publication in Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal shall be within the jurisdiction of High Court at Kolkata only.

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Editorial Board and Subject Experts of the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal may edit the Paper if necessary.

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Opinions expressed in the articles are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the policies of the COUNCIL OF EDULIGHT.

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DADELINE FOR SUBMISSION OF THE NEXT ISSUE: 25th August, 2016. SEND TO THE E-MAIL: mondalajit.edn@gmail CONTACT: DR. AJIT MONDAL, SURENDRANATH COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, 24 MAHATMA GANDHI ROAD, KOLKATA – 700009, WEST BENGAL INDIA

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CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH SPECTRUM International, Multi-disciplinary, Bi-annual & Refereed Print Journal SL. NO.

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CONTENT

A Comparative Study on Selected Health Related Fitness between Athlete and Nonathlets College Students Bodhisattwa Pradhan, Dr. Pradipta Kumar Giri, Prof. S.Bhowmick & Prof. K. Banerjee

Ampri: The Valley of Dead Studying Three Ballads of the Karbis of Kamrup (M) District, Assam Utpal Baishya & Dr. Debalina Debnath

Financial Inclusion in India: A Way of Rural Socio-Economic Development Dr. Santanu Das

Access to Teaching Learning Materials among the General and Special Education Teachers in the School System: A Study Dr. S. K. Panneer Selvam

Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer: A Study of a Socially Segregated Society Goutam Barman

The Role of NGOs in Empowering Women in West Bengal Jilkod Mamun

The New English of the Netizens: Impact of Social Media on English Language Lilack Biswas

A Glimpse on Art and Architecture in Medieval India Mohan Shyam Bhaskar

A Comparative Study on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Sonitpur District of Assam Mr. Jadab Dutta, Mr. Nitul Gogoi & Prof. J.C Soni

10.

Quality Assurance and Quality Teaching in School Education in the 21ST Century Mr. Rakesh Manna & Dr. Jayanta Mete

11.

Charles Baudelaire, the ‘modern’ Frenchman

78 Sayonee Acharya

12.

English Language Teaching in India: An Overview Sunandita Sarker

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20. 21.

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Social and Community Structure of the Kumbhakaras in Bengal Dr. Surajit Rauth Defining “The Province” of Secularism in Nepal Vijay Prasad Jayshwal T. S. Eliot: The Idea of a Perfect Critic Chinmoy Dey Research as a Vital Role Player in the Field of Teacher Education Dr. Gaurav Sachar A Study of the Values of Prospective Secondary School Dr. Nisha Raninga A Study on the Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers Dr. Prodip Das Stress among Teacher Educators from Self-Financing Colleges of Education Dr. Radhakanta Gartia Empowerment of Women – A Gandhian Approach Dr. Sarmila Das National Curriculum Frame Work (NCF) 2005 by NCERT–A Critical Analysis Dr. Sobhan Banerjee Islamic Prayer Namaz (‘Salat’)—As a Meditation or Yoga: An Analysis Hemanta Adhikari National Institutional Ranking Framework for Higher Education Institutions in India Jayantibhai V. Patel Teaching-Learning through Social Media: An Interactive Educational Tool Jayatri Chakraborty & Susmita Basu Narayan Gnagopadhyer Nirbanchito Chhoto Galpo Samikshan Rumpa Bhadra Opinion of the Teachers and Secondary Students towards the Development of Scholastic, Co-Scholastic and Co-Curricular Activities of CCE in CBSE Schools S. Shanthi & Dr. A. Subramanian Employment Generation through Village Tourism Suman Das A Study of Attitude of Government and Private Secondary School Teachers towards the Use of Information and Communication Technology Dr. Inderpreet Kaur

94 107 114 119 125 129 134

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Classification and Its Consequence Is Knowledge Jahar Biswas

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A Study to Find out the Effects of Swamijiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Music in Depression Level of Students Jayanta Acharya

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Muslim Women and Electoral Politics in India: A Case Study Prasenjit Saha

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Gaps in Teaching Accountancy at the Higher Secondary Level: An Analysis Samir Kumar Naskar Despair and Delight in the Novels of Mulk Raj Anand T. Pushpanathan

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Ahom Architecture: An Ode to the Architecture of Assam Rikimi Madhukaillya The Concept of NirvÄ na in the Light of Buddhism Dr. Kuheli Biswas E-Governance Initiatives in Urban India Dr. M. Ramana Concept of Social Justice in the Political Philosophy Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: A Brief Study Dr. P. Ravi Realism Keya Ghatak Present Scenario of Teacher Education Tapasi Biswas Conservation of Estuaries for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Aghanashini River Estuary in Karnataka - Using Remote Sensing and GIS Data Dr. S. S. Hangaragi

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33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

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A Comparative Study on Selected Health Related Fitness between Athlete and Nonathlets College Students Bodhisattwa Pradhan Ph. D. Scholar, Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, E-mail: bodhisattwapradhan2013@gmail.com & Dr. Pradipta Kumar Giri Assistant Teacher, Kamrabad Uchcha Vidyalaya, Sonarpur, Kolkata, West Bengal E-mail: giri_pradipta@rediffmail.com & Prof. S. Bhowmick Professor (Retd.), Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, E-mail: sudarsanbhowmick@yahoo.com & Prof. K. Banerjee Professor, Department of Physical Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, West Bengal, E-mail: Krishna.banarjee.52@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Health and physical fitness played a vital role in the life of Man for his every day activity .The progress of a nation lies in the hands of the people, who are healthy and physically fit. Every individual should develop physical fitness for a happy and effective daily living. The purpose of the present study was to know the health related physical fitness between athletes and non- athletes and to compare the health related physical fitness status between athletes and non- athletes in Mugbria Gangadhar Mahavidyalaya. The study was conducted on sixty (60) subjects. The subject were selected at randomly, among them thirty (30) are athletes and other thirty (30) are non athletes. The athletes are selected from B. P. Ed section and non athletes from General Degree Course. Selected parameters such as Sit &Reach, Harvard step test., Hand grip strength, Bent knee sit ups are measured. The mean and SD were calculated as descriptive statistics, paired sample t test was computed to find out a comparative study. Result revealed that the height of non â&#x20AC;&#x201C; athletes having better height than athletes. The athletes have better flexibility than nonathletes and the muscular endurance of the athletes have better than of non-athletes.

Key Words: Health Related Fitness, Athlete and Non Athletes Introduction Health and physical fitness have played a vital role in the life of men from time immemorial. The progress of the Nation lies in the hands of the people, who are healthy and physically fit. Every individual should develop physical fitness for a happy and effective living. In order to get physical fitness one has to involve in physical activities. Physical activity is essential for the development of wholesome personality of a child this would depend upon the opportunities provided for wholesome development of the mental, physical, social and spiritual aspects. Hence a well organized and properly administered physical education program for college students is very essential. Physical activity throughout the ages has been acclaimed for health and recreation. It provided fun and enjoyment. It also provide youthful exuberance and the elderly care. Physical activity and movements are as old as human existence. It played numerous roles from struggle for existence to struggle for excellence. A

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sport is an activity in our lives where pursuits of different movement achieved through the total investigation of Neuro muscular co-ordination. Now days, Low levels of physical activity are a global health concern for all children. In this modern era, we can see that each and every individual directly or indirectly related to sports. Modern Physical Education commonly known as there is sports where pursuit of discipline freely formed such as biological, social and physical sciences. Over decades, the society in general has realized the need for keeping fit and health through organized physical activity program. Scientific evidence has made with a clear and that unless man engages himself in organized vigorous physical activity program. The real benefits would not come. Many researchers strongly support the regular exercises helps one to keep a strong and healthy and to prevent cardio vascular diseases. Physically fit person, heart beats at a lower rate and pumps more blood per beat at rest. As a result of regular exercises and individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to use oxygen is increased systematically energy production depends on internal chemical or metabolic change. Health, Fitness and performance are poorly correlated phenomena. Health is generally defined as the freedom from disease, fitness strictly relates to a manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to meet the demands of his environment and excellence in performance. Every individual must know the importance of physical fitness. In other words, one must have a fundamental knowledge of anatomy and physiology. This fundamental knowledge enables person to understand physical fitness. Physical fitness is the capacity of a person to function steadily and smoothly when a situation arises. Physical fitness makes you feel mentally sharper, physically comfortable and more with your body and better able to cope with the demands that every day life makes upon you. The benefits of physical fitness are numerous. The person who is physically fit has greater amount of strength, energy and stamina an improved sense of well being better protection from injury because strong well developed muscles safeguard bones, internal organs and joints and keep moving parts limbers and improved cardio respiratory function. It is necessary for every individual to be physically fit to perform their daily work with ease and to take part in various activities effectively. Every one should be fit enough through participation in physical activities to develop the different physical fitness components. Physical fitness is a general concept, defined in many ways by differing scientists. Here two major categories are considered: general fitness (a state of health and well-being), and specific fitness (a task-oriented definition based on the ability to perform specific aspects of sports or occupations). Physical fitness is generally achieved through correct nutrition, exercise, hygiene and rest. Health-related physical fitness is defined as the fitness related to some aspect of health. This type of physical fitness is primarily influenced by an individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s exercise habits; thus, it is a dynamic state and may change. Physical characteristics that constitute health-related physical fitness include strength and endurance of skeletal muscles, joint flexibility, body composition, and cardio respiratory endurance. All these attributes change in response to appropriate physical conditioning programs, and all are related to health. Materials and Method For the purpose of the present study thirty (N1=30) athlete and thirty (N2=30) non athletes were randomly selected from Mugberia Gangadhar Mahavidyalaya. Among them athletes are Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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from B. P. Ed section and non athletes from General Degree Course respectively. The subject’s age was ranged from 20-25 years. The subject was asked to perform different aspect of test accordingly such as flexibility; cardiovascular endurance, hand grip strength test and sit up test were taken accordingly. After collecting the data Mean and SD was calculated as descriptive statistics and paired sample t test was computed to find out a comparative study on selected health related physical fitness between athletes and non athletes. Results and Discussion Table I represents the mean height of the athletes and non athletes. Analyzing the data it appears that the average height of the athletes was found higher than that of the non athletes. Table I - Height (cm) of the Athlete and Non-athlete Group Athlete Non-athlete

Mean 166.19 167.19

S.D 6.32 4.65

Table II - Weight (kg) of the Athlete and Non-athlete Group Athlete Non-athlete

Mean 58.51 59.91

S.D 7.4 6.99

Table II shows the mean body weight between athletes and non-athletes. From the above table it appears that the mean body weight of the non athletes is slightly higher than of the athletes. This difference may be the non athletes are abstaining from the regular physical activity. Table III – Mean, SD and ‘t’ values of Flexibility (inches) between Athlete and Non-athlete

Group Mean Athlete 18.22 Non16.69 athlete *Significant at 0.05 level

S.D 2.23 2.25

‘t’ 2.590*

20 15 Athletes

Non-Athletes

5 0 Mean

Fig. 1 Mean and SD of Flexibility Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Table III shows the mean performance in flexibility of athletes and non-athletes. Analyzing the data it appears that the mean performance in flexibility of the athletes found more in comparison to non-athletes and the difference was found to be ‘t’ = 2.59 which was statistically significant at 0.05 level of confidence. Table IV – Mean, SD and ‘t’ values of PEI between Athletes & Non athletes Group PEI Athlete Non athlete *Significant at 0.05 level

Mean 89.67 84.57

S.D 8.82 6.87

‘t’ 2.563*

Fig. 2 Mean and SD of Physical Efficiency Index It was observed from the Table IV that the physical efficiency index reflecting cardiovascular endurance of the athletes found better than non- athletes. Analyzing the data it appears that the significant difference between the groups was found to be ‘t’ = 2.563 which was statistically significant at 0.05 level of confidence. This difference exists due to regular participation of routine physical activity as a part of course curriculum. Table V - Mean, SD and ‘t’ of Hand grip strength (kg) between Athlete and Non-athlete Group Athlete Non-athlete

Mean 19.51 18.94

S.D 3.47 3.82

‘t’ .633

20 15 Athletes

Non-

5 0 Mean

Fig.3 Mean and SD of Hand Grip Strength

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From the Table V it appears that the hand grip strength of the athletes is better than of non-athletes. The difference between groups was found to be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; = 0.633 which was insignificant. It may be due to the participation of the subjects in laborious physical activity in agriculture sector for their lively hood as more or less all the students are from rural backgrounds. Conclusion Within the limitations of the study and on the basis of result it may be concluded that, the non athletes are taller than the athletes. The athletes having lighter body weight in comparison to non athletes. It has been shown that the athletes have the better flexibility than non athletes. The study also reveals that the athletes have better cardiovascular endurance than non athletes; the athletes have better hand grip strength than non athletes. References Books Ajmer Singh et.alo. (2006). Essential of Physical Education, Daruyaganj, New Delhi, P.275. Barrow HM and McGee RM. (1982). Practical Approach to Measurement in Physical Education, (3rd ed), Delhi, Surjeet Publications, P. 75 Bucher C.A, and .Wast D.A, Foundations of Physical Education and Sports Saint Louis, Mosby College Publishing, P.188. Bandura A. (1997)- Self-efficacv: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Desiree B. Maltais (2014) D.K.Kansal, A practical approach to test measurement and evaluation publication Sidhu LS and Grewal R (1984) Effect of hard training on cardio-vascular system of Indian women hockey players. J. Sports Med. Phy. Fitness. 24(1), 34-40. Uppal, AK, (2004). Physical Fitness and Wellness, Friends Publications, New Delhi. P. 3. Internet Sodhganga.com

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Ampri: The valley of Dead Studying three Ballads of the Karbis of Kamrup (M) District, Assam Utpal Baishya Assistant Professor, Department of Folklore, Dimoria College, Khetri, Kamrup (M), Assam. E-mail: baishyautpal5@gmail.com. & Dr. Debalina Debnath Assistant professor, Department of Folklore, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal.Email:ddebnathku@gmail.com ABSTRACT The Karbis are one of the most prominent plain tribe of Kamrup (M) district Assam. They have very rich oral tradition and colourful culture. Ampri is a small tributary of the Mighty river Brahmaputra, bordering present Assam and Meghalaya. In both the sides of this Ampri tributary Karbi people are living since generations, hence various oral traditions like legends, ballads, songs, and tales are centering on this Ampri tributary. Three ballads namely the ‘Mormai Bangthe’, ‘Kongkat Bangthe’ and ‘Thelunongplang’ tells about the unique technique of Gorila warfare, bloodshed of Ampri valley and extreme radical beliefs and brutal action of king (Bangthe) ‘Maralu Barkang’. On the other hand, these ballads give us some hint about the Socio-economic, socio-political conditions of the Karbi people in this area. Primary data have been collected from different areas of Dimoria.

Key Words: Karbi, Ampri, Ballads, Bangthai Mormai, Kongkat, Thelunongplang, Dimoria

Introduction: The Karbi is one of the most prominent ethnic groups of Assam. The basic concentration of this population is in lower-middle part of Assam including Karbi-Anglong. Like the most other ethnic population of Assam, Karbis are rich in their oral literature. Regarding the origin and migration of Karbis of Assam, history is quite silent. One has to depend on their myth, legend and other sources of folk literature to access their history. Racially the Karbis belong to the Mongoloid group and linguistically they belong to the Tibeto-Burman group. With a population of around 4 lacs 60 thousands as per 2001 Census, the Karbis constitutes the third largest tribal community in Assam after the Bodos and the Mishings. History is quite silent regarding the origin of the Karbis in Assam. One has to depend on myth, legend and other oral sources to guess their original abode. Like the Stack and Lyall says “the tradition of the race point to the eastern portion of the Khasi and Jayantiya hills, bordering on the Kapili River as their original abode. (The Mikir). Various Myths, legend are current regarding the originality of the Karbi. According to these sources South-east Asia is their original homeland and scholar also supported this view. It is assumed that from the foothill region of Himalaya the (Mikir) or the Karbis migrated to different region of Assam and settled down. From the point of habitation, the Karbis are divided into three groups, namely Chinthong, Ronghang and Amri. Those who live in the plains district are called Dumrali and Tholua by the Assamese. (Tribes of Assam-I, 1987, pp55). These Dumrali Karbis are living in Kamrup district since long past. Although historical records are very scanty regarding the settlement of Karbis in plain, few writings advocate the presence of Dumrali Karbis since time immemorial. Waddle in his book ‘The tribes of the Brahmaputra Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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valley’ (1901) opined that due to brutality of the Kachari king many Karbi people fled to the bank of Kapili and Dhansiri river. S.C Lyall in his book ‘The Karbis’ (Reprint 1997) opined that this fourth section Dumrali settled in present Kamrup (M) and Morigaon districts. However, there are plenty of oral sources in support of the Karbis migration to plain region. According to one legend, due to repeated violence and torture, a group of Karbi people under the leadership of Kleng Mekar pe, Tumung fuchang pe and Behal Be po fled way towards west and by crossing the Kiling and Kapili river entered into Kamrup District. It is also said that near present Khetri, on the foot hill region of Englong Me- kar- Pe (Dhoumara pahar/ hill) they settled for the first time in Kamrup district. A karbi song says------Englong Me- kar- Pe longjan Asan Aakuri Aafan Pirthe Akiye puchi Dumura Adak Kishang II Meaning: In the area of Englong Me- kar- Pe, to create a new world for Karbi people they settled in Dumra. These Dumrali Karbi who settled in Kamrup district are the descendent of other three groups namely Chinthong, Ronghang and Amri. But due to geographical isolation and assimilation with the other people, one can now easily observe the differences between Dumrali and other three groups. Now this Dumrali Karbis have their own language, literature, customs, rites and rituals, food habits, dress and ornaments and so on with local flavour. The Karbi people living in Kamrup(M) district or the Dumrali Karbis are very rich in their oral sources. They have innumerable number of folksongs, ballads, tales and legends. Retkinung Alun or Aar-Kura Git (songs associated with Jhum cultivation) is the life line of Dumrali Karbi. Everything of a Karbi society is reflected in Retkinong Alun. Someone says ‘Aar kurat ji nai, karbi samajat sai nai.” Meaning: The subject not included in Aar-kura songs, has not been found in Karbi society. Materials and Methods: In this present paper an attempt has been made to study three ballads of Karbi, that are current in Dimoria area of Kamrup(M) district of Assam. All these three ballads namely ‘Mormai Bangthe’, ‘Kongkat Bangthe’ and ‘Thelunongplang’ are legendary and associated with the Ampri tributary of present Assam –Meghalaya border. Although these three ballads donot have any direct connection to each other, all of these three tell about the conspiracy and brutality of Mormai Bangthe ( Mormai king) for the sake of power and politics. These three ballads were sung to me by Mr. Luit Rahang, one active tradition bearer, aged about 82 years from Dakhinbam village. For this present study, materials has been collected through extensive fieldwork in different parts of present Dimoria area like Dakhin Bam, Nihang Diksak, Teteliguri, chukuripara etc. I have used various methods of data collection like Direct observation methods, interview methods (Both directive and non-directive) and Audio-visual methods.

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Moreover in data analysis I have used the comparative methods and historical-geographical methods. Result and Discussion: The center of discussion for the present paper is the Ampri valley. Ampri is a tributary of Mighty River Brahmaputra and a branch of River Digaru, flows on the foothill region of Englong Me- kar- Pe (Dhoumara pahar/ hill). On both the sides of Ampri tributary, Karbi people are living since generations. In one part of Ri-bhoi district of present Meghalaya, situated on the southern part of Ampri valley, and in various places like Sonapur, Khetri, Panbari, Chandrapur, Beltola, in the northern part, descendent of Dumrali Karbis are still living. After settling down in this area, they established their kingdom as Dimorua Longri (Country of Dumura Recho/ King). Entire area of the kingdom are divided into nine (9) councils and each council was headed by a Bangthe (village head). Rajendra Tumung in his article â&#x20AC;&#x153; Dimoriar karbi janagusthi aru Astitar Sankatâ&#x20AC;? writes that, These nine councils are 1. Khamar 2. Kiling 3. Kachamala (cenimur) 4. Mormai 5. Bacharang 6. Kalangpur 7. Tikira 8. Tentela 9. Burchi. According to oral sources among those nine Bangthe, Mormai Bangthe was very ambitious and wants to be the only king of Ampri valley. His name was Maralu Borkong and the Mormai kingdom was situated on the southern part of Ampri valley. He was such a cruel king that to ignite fear among the general people of other council, brutally murdered lots of innocent people. One of such act of terror and conspiracy is reflected in one ballad. The ballad goes like this-----Aio lake nale barcharang aarang Raung damaung heng ghe oung Barbachane ka-hal chali hai II Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai II Aio lake hanjarpi ahi chapen Hanjarpi ahi chapen Aio lake na-natuwa lang dam nang II Aio lake monikpur langklam langklam Therepane barkongr pake Deuljatra chan che do chali hai Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai II Da-dumura lungle para Gahanchakura wang wan da Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Na-natuwa lang dam nang na Aio lake hanjarpi ahi pen Hanjar cho ahi pene Na-natuwa lang dam jar bang II Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai. II Aio lake monikpur langklam langklam Therepane barkongr pake Ulang-gor chan che jar bang II Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai II Aio lake monikpur langklam langklam Lupulpul kacharang II Aio lake monikpur langklam langklam Deuljatra chan che da ma Ulang gor khaji do he II Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai. II Aio lake hakmarjong ahi tene Hakmarjong ape tene Deuljatra lang dam nam chali hoi II Langhe wade oi hai wade bau langhe Wade oi hai aa Wade lang hai aru hai hai. II Contextual Meaning: Maralu Borkong the king of Mormai kingdom once announces that he is going to organize a dance function in his capital Manikpur on the occasion of DeulJatra. The famous dancers from the nearby kingdom like Khoiram, Dimoria, are invited. Everyone would be allowed to enjoy this function freely, especially the plain dwellers of Dimoria kingdom. Further he announces that everyone will be offered with lupulpul kacharang (cigarette prepared with tree leave containing high quality nicotine). Although he made an attractive advertisement for his propose dance function, he had some hidden agenda and planned a good trap to kill the plain dwellers.

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On the day of function lots of people from plain came to Manikpur. They were warmly welcomed, offered lupulpul kacharang and headed towards the function area which was on a high territory. People were very happy by discussing about the dance and enjoying the lupulpul kacharang. No one ever thought of anything else. On the other hand, Maralu Borkong prepared a ‘Ulangor’(kind of bamboo squeezer) on the way to the dance function. It was prepared by the Bana- bah (jungle bamboo) in such a way that when they use, it hurts human in their chest and waist. It looks like the barricade. He made two ‘Ulangor’, one for male and the other was for female. When hundreds of people entered into the ‘Ulangor’, shoulders of Maralu Borkongn use it and killed hundreds of people. People were running here and there. Everywhere on the air of Manikpur were people’s crying. But cruel Maralu Borkongn enjoyed this brutality. After few days when people did not return to their original home, few people came to Manikpur in disguise to check what had happen to them. When they came to know about the brutality of Maralu Borkongn they sung the above ballad. Ballad –II Kongkat Banghte Aio-lake Kongkat Bangthe aruwe apo Lang chulu pang aee aee Lang chulu pang ei ei la II Aio lake malvug fuok akimenpen Chang cirik paruwe lo ma Kongkat bangthe aruwe apo II Aio lake langhe baoi wade lang hari hoi Lang hai hai II Aio lake amchiri lang bang chi ma Lang chul pang ei ei lo I Aio lake darangkun along le chi Nang pe nari nang ki thee Nangchu nanglu nang ki thi loo II Langhe baoi wade Lang hari hoi lang hai hai II Aio lake tikira recho pachi Upe uthe ki damchi Shenudangke paku du loo II Langhe baoi wade Lang hari hoi lang hai hai I Kangkat bangthe aru apo Lang chulu pang e- e tene Lang chulu pang a-a la I Langhe baoi wade Lang hari hoi lang hai hai II Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Contextual Meaning: This ballad speaks about the sudden attack of Mormai King on his neighbour counterpart Kankat Kingdom. It tells about the pitiless act of Maralu Borkongn, agony of general people and showcase how the kongkat kingdom shifted from northern part of Ampri valley to Darangkun. Karbis of Dimoria perform various rites and rituals for their community wellbeing. Karbi Dehal Kachirdom is one of such important community function where they worship Lord Shiv annually in the month of February (Fagun). Birkilut is another ritual performs by Dumrali karbi. Birkilut (Ganga bath) is a purification function observes by Dumrali Karbi before any major event. It is also observe in personal level. This year kongkat bangthai wishes to organize the Dehal Kachirdom on a grand way, for which they were observing the Birkilut at Ampri tributary. Whole villagers, whether young boys and girls, senior citizen were present there with their king. Suddenly they show that huge fire rising from their villages. They just tried to move to their villages, and show that the shoulders of Mormai Kingdom are coming to attack them. They killed hundreds of people. Deliberately destroyed the property of Kongkat Kingdom. Few of them with their king fled way with their traditional drum (Dhul, Kali), which they treated as the object of god. They reached in a place called Darangkun, near Present Khetri. They found a big tree cave near a water cascade where they escaped themselves. They were so afraid of that they stayed there for a long time even without having cloth to wear, food to eat. Spring season arrived. Tikira Recho (King of Tikira) once discovered these naked people, trying hard to feed themselves with tree leave, earth potato, when he was hunting in this region. Then he came to know that these people are coming from Amri valley, who were thrown way by the Mormai king. From that day this place is also known as Langta gug ( place of naked people). Tikira Recho then rescued Kongkat Bangthai and offered him a new place to establish his kingdom. Ballad 窶的II Thelunangphlang Aio lake thelunangphlang thawang thawang Nang kamai cham frudang Aio lake nang nu che nok beng thelu Nakcheng wang pung frang frang II Oi nang arfi warel thelu Pati mit okren ben Pati mit okren ben patike okten ben II thelunangphlang thawang thawang kamai cham frudang wa he nang arfi warel thelu Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Nakcheng wang pung frang frang II Oi nang arfi warel thelu Pati mit ok tan ben Pati mit ok ten ben Patike okren ben II Contextual Meaning: As it has been mentioned earlier Mormai King Maralu Borkongn was a very ambitious king. To fulfill his ambition he became very cruel. After conquering kongkat Kingdom, he made a long standing plane of cheating to acquire his neighbour khasi Kingdom Nongphlang. King Nongphlang was very powerful in his army. Therefore Maralu Borkongn avoids direct fighting and planed to acquire Khasi kingdom through cheating. Once he went to Nongphlang with a proposal of marriage of his son to Nongphlang’s daughter. He said, I have played a lot with the blood of neighbouring people. Therefore no more blood shedding. We should bond up with a family tie. As Khasi is a matrilineal society my son will stay at your kingdom for three years, and after three years we will come and organize the Harhak (Karbi Marriage) and bring back my son and his family to my kingdom. Nangphlang also agreed as he had his young daughter eligible for marriage. After completion of three years king Borkong fixed the date of his son Harhak (Marriage). In the meantime Borkong had his granddaughter and to look after her he appointed a Bokali (nurse). On that fixed date Borkong went to Nongphlang Kingdom with his trained soldiers. More than the marriage of his son, he had something different in his mind. On the other hand from the Nongphlang end everyone was busy in their respective work for marriage. But the Bokali sensed it very clearly that something going to be wrong. She sung a lullaby in Karbi , which Nongphlang did not understand. “Beware Mr. Thelunongphlang, do not be so excited. You may not be successful in this marriage as king Borkong and his soldiers are well prepared and they silently kept their Nok (sword) on the bamboo wall of your house. The Borkong’s son also accompanied his father in conspiracy. He said to his father in law that from today I will go from your state; therefore give me a chance to serve you. Then he combed his father in laws long hair and silently tied it in a post. Nangphlang had a god gifted sword with magical power, which he kept safely on the ceiling of his house so that no one can touch it. Borkong’s son wrapped that sword seven times very tightly with cane. When Nongphlang’s daughter started serving Hor (traditional liquor) to her guest then suddenly her father in law beheaded her. When her father came to know, he tried to stand up quickly and his hairs were plucked as it was tied up in knots. Yet in this pathetic condition he pulled his sword. He unfolds the four wrap at once. He attempted the second time, but till then Mormai Soldier entered in his room and killed him. Conclusion: Three ballads that are discussed above although don’t have any direct relation with each other, all three are associated with Ampri valley and Mormai Bangthe (King) Maralu Borkongn. These three ballads show extreme radical believe and brutal action. Through depth analysis and interpretation of these three ballads one can easily access the political structure, socio-economic condition of the Karbis in Kamrup (M) district Assam. But at the same time Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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it is matter of deep concern that the age old active tradition bearer are dying day by day and the new generation are not very much interested in their valued tradition. Due to impact of modernization and globalization the world become very small and life of the people are very fast. Even in the remote corner, people are running after technological advancement by ignoring their root. Therefore, it is high to time to preserve those precious verbal documents by collecting in its original state, and then only it will be possible to interpret those sources. Informants: Boro, Suveswar, 81, Kulajari Kalita, J.C, 67, Maloibari Rahang, Luit 82, Dakhinbam Tumung, Rajendra, 53, Maheswar Teron, Suren, 65, Nihang Dikchak References: Bordoloi, B.N (1987): Tribes of Assam part-I, Guwahati Tribal Research institute. Government of Assam Bordoloi, Manas Jyoti (2013): Settlement of the Karbis in the plains: its historical context. Journal â&#x20AC;&#x153;paribartanâ&#x20AC;?, Dimoria Tribal Sangha Kathar, Dayaram (2014) : Dumrali Karbi Loka Sanskriti,Waram Publication, Guwahati. Kalita, J.C (2004): Karbi Loka Sahitya, Dimoria College Publication Lyall, S.C (Reprint 1997): The Karbis, Spectrum Publication, Guwahati. Tumang, Rajendra (2013) : Ulangor, Rajendra Publication

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Financial Inclusion in India: A Way of Rural Socio-Economic Development. Dr. Santanu Das Assistant Professor, Department of Commerce., Srikrishna College, Bagula, Nadia, West Bengal-741502, E-mail:100santanudas@gmail.com ABSTRACT Financial Inclusion is the process of ensuring the access of financial services to the weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost. It is the universal access to a wide range of financial services at a reasonable cost. It refers both the place and pattern of growth, which are very much interlinked. It focuses on productive employment rather than on direct income redistribution. It should be broad-based across sectors and it should also be inclusive of large part of the country’s labors force. According to this concept inclusiveness refers to equality of opportunity in terms of access to markets, resources and unbiased regulatory environment for business and individuals Financial Inclusion is a way to achieve “Inclusive Growth” in national economy. Inclusive Growth generally refers to equality of opportunity in terms of access to markets, resources and unbiased regularatory environment for business and individuals. It can be characterized as a broad-based growth that includes non-discriminatory participation. It also focuses on people who belong to below poverty line. This article analyze and discuss with various important factors significant for achieving ‘Inclusive Growth’ like Agriculture, Poverty reduction and employment generation, Social sector development, Regional disparities and Environmental development etc. through the way of “Financial Inclusion”. The paper concludes that it is more challenging for any developing country like India to achieve inclusive growth than getting 7 to 10 percent growth in GDP.

Key Words: Inclusive Growth, Broad Based Growth, Developing Countries, Agriculture, Poverty Reduction, Employment Generation, Social Sector development, Regional disparities, Environmental development. “Poverty is the worst form of violence” - Mahatma Gandhi “If the misery of the poor be caused not by the laws of nature, but by Our institution, great is our sin” - Charles Darwin 01 Introduction: Financial Inclusion is the process of ensuring the access of financial services to the weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost. It is the universal access to a wide range of financial services at a reasonable cost. Financial Inclusion is way to achieve “Inclusive Growth” in the national economy. The term inclusive growth may be defined as a system that allows people to contribute and benefit from economic growth. It refers both the place and pattern of growth, which are very much interlinked. It focuses on productive employment rather than on direct income redistribution. It should be broad-based across sectors and it should also be inclusive of large part of the country’s labors force. According to this concept inclusive ness refers to equality of opportunity in terms of access to markets, resources and unbiased regulatory environment for business and individuals.

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Therefore, Inclusive Growth is a concept which advances equitable opportunities for economic Participants during the process of economic growth with benefits incurred by every section of Society. Making growth more inclusive and addressing widespread poverty is a key challenge for India in this century. Inclusive growth is a political, social and economic necessity in our Country now a day. So there is a need to have a broad based and inclusive growth to benefit all sections of society and progress economic growth. It is more challenging for any developing country to achieve inclusive growth than getting 7 to 10percent growth in GDP. There are strong social, economic and political reasons for achieving broader and inclusive growth: •

Socially, lack of inclusive growth leads to unrest among many people.

•

The economic argument is that the measures which raise equality also promote economic growth

•

The political argument is that no government in a democracy can afford to ignore large sections of workers and non-working population.

Thus, socially, politically, and economically it can argue that having a stable and democratic society country needs to have inclusive growth. Objectives: 1. To explore the need and significance of financial Inclusion through Inclusive Growth for economic and social development of society. 2. To analyze the current status of Financial Inclusion and the affectivity of Inclusive growth in India. Background: As the majority of rural people are still not included in Inclusive Growth, the concept of Financial Inclusion becomes a challenge for the Indian economy. Since 2005 many concerted measures are initiated by RBI and the govt. of India in favor of Financial Inclusion but the impact of these did not yield satisfactory results. Govt. of India (2008) examined Financial Inclusion a delivery mechanism providing financial services at an affordable cost to the vast sections of the disadvantage and low income groups. Kamath (2008) attempted to understand the impact of Micro Finance Institution (MFI) on daily household cash floes by analyzing cash inflow and cash outflow patterns of borrowers of MFI and comparing with non MFI household. Development Research Project (2013) attempted to understand the finance need of poor in long term and short term by exploring how surplus fund is used to meet short term, long term and emergency requirements to develop strategies for financial inclusion and designing. CRISIL (2013) measured the extant of financial inclusion in India in the form of an index. It makes use of the non monetary aggregates for calculating financial inclusion. CRISIL gave ground level information regarding the progress of financial inclusion in the country’s rural and also urban areas. RBI (2014) focused on the provision of financial services to the small business and low income house hold. RBI (2014b) presented a report to study various challenges and evaluate alternatives in the domain of technology that can help large scale expansion of mobile banking across the country. Despite concerted efforts by the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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government, RBI and NABARD, issues related to financial inclusion need to be looked at more carefully in order to address the several significant issues especially at micro level. 02. Significant Factors for Financial Inclusion: These are the important factors for Financial Inclusion in India: •

Agriculture.

•

Poverty Reduction & Employment Generation.

•

Social Sector Development.

•

Regional Disparities.

•

Environmental Development

Agriculture: The most important element of inclusive growth in India is agriculture. It is the largest economic sector of most of the developing countries like India and plays a significant role in the overall socio economic development of the nation .According to World Bank ‘India country overview 2008’-Slow agricultural growth is a concerned for policy makers as some two thirds of Indian people depend on rural employment for living. Current agricultural practices are neither economically nor are environmentally neither sustainable nor Indian yields for many agricultural commodities low. Poorly maintained irrigation system and almost universal lack of good extension service are among the factors responsible. Farmers’ access to markets is hampered by poor roads, market infrastructure and excessive regulation. Due to the above mentioned facts deterioration in growth from 3.5% during 1981-1997 to 2% during 1997-2005. But according to commission for agricultural cost and prices, government of India, for balanced inclusive growth India has to achieve 4% growth in agriculture by increasing productivity, diversification of agricultural products, focusing on small and marginal farmers and environmental concerns. Poverty Reduction Employment Generation: Below poverty line is an economic benchmark used by government of India to identify individuals and households who need government assistance and aid. It is determined using various parameters, which vary, from state to state and within states. The planning commission fixed an upper limit of 3.26 lakhs rural BPL families. in 10th 5 years plan BPL for urban areas was based on degree of deprivation in respect of seven parameters:- Roof, Floor, Water, Sanitation, Educational level, Type of employment and Status of children in house. The concept of inclusive growth is used for poverty reduction by spreading the benefits of economic development to all section of people throughout the country. World bank estimates 42% below $1.25 poverty line. Asian development bank 65% with $ 1.35 poverty line. India’s 80% poor are from rural areas and it is concentrated among agricultural labours, casual workers, and schedule cast and schedule tribe. Therefore planned and controlled economic growth is required for solving the unemployment problem. Recently the UPA government is come up with rural employment guarantee programme which aims to provide minimum days of employment to people living in the village. Emphasis has to be Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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given on creation of opportunities for self-employment. So without solving this basic problem the objective of inclusive growth can never be achieved in India. Social Sector Development: India ranks 127 out of 170 countries in human development index. The social sector development is a major activity which is undertaken by government. Development and utilization of human resources and the improvement in the overall quality of living of the people are the prime objective of every nation. If people are healthy educated and adequately skilled, they can participate fully and contribute more to economic development process. The government of India performs and discharges a number of duties and functions for human development. The expenditure of India government has grown at a significant 20% per annum in post reforms period (public finance statistics by Government of India).1Therefore, unless and until social sector development has not been done the objective of inclusive growth in India not achieved. Regional Disparities: In India, a regional imbalance has been found as a most crucial problem before policy makers and planners. World Bank (2006) in its report entitled “India inclusive growth and service delivery: Building of Indian success” has observed sharp differentiation access state since early 90’s reflects acceleration in growth in some states but deceleration in others. The World Bank (2008) again in its release “the growth report strategies sustain growth and inclusive development” has mentioned that disparity in income distribution in India has risen during 1993-2005. The 13 finance commission, government of India (2010-2015) should assign due weightage to this factor in its scheme of devolution of taxes/ grants for states such that interstate economic disparities may be rectified effectively. Environmental Development: The last but not the least element of Indian inclusive growth is environmental development. Environmental aspect plays a vital role for overall socio economic development of any country. For the last two decades, climate change is a major environmental problem foe economic growth in India. Unplanned industrial developments increase the pollution level, which have a negative impact of all the elements of inclusive growth. 03. Indicators of Financial Inclusion: The Government of India and the Reserve Bank of India have been making concerted efforts to promote financial inclusion as one of the important national objectives of the country. Some of the major efforts made in the last five decades include – nationalization of bank, building up of robust branch network of scheduled commercial banks, co-operatives and regional rural banks, formation of self-help groups, zero balance BSBD accounts etc. The fundamental objective of all these initiatives is to reach the large sections of hitherto financial excluded Indian population. Government of India Population Census 2011: As per Census 2011, only 58.7% of households are availing banking services in the country. However, as compared with previous census 2001, availing of banking services increased significantly largely on account of increase in banking service in rural areas. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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CRISIL Financial Inclusion Index (Inclusix): In June 2013, CRISIL first time published a comprehensive financial inclusion index. For constructing the index CRISIL identified three critical parameters of basic banking services namely branch penetration, deposit penetration and credit penetration. The CRISIL Inclusix Indicate that there is an overall improvement in the financial inclusion in India. CRISIL- Inclusix (on a scale of 100) increased from 35.4 in March 2009 to 37.6 in March 2010 and to 40.1 in March 2011. Sadhan Kumar ( RBI Working Paper Series:8/2011) worked out an Index of Financial Inclusion(IFI) based on three variables namely penetration(number of adults having bank account), availability of banking services(number of bank branches per 1000 population) and usage(measured as outstanding credit and deposit). The result indicate that Kerala, Maharastra and Karnataka has achieved high financial inclusion (IFI>0.5), while Tamil Nadu, Panjab, A.P, H.P, Sikkim and Hariyana identified as a group of medium financial inclusion(0.3<IFI<0.5) and the remaining states have very low financial inclusion. 04. Conclusion: Thus inclusive growth can be characterized as broad based growth that includes nondiscriminatory participation. It belong to below poverty line extend belong to people below poverty line. Financial inclusion is the only way to secure inclusive growth as well as overall socio economic development of the nation. Although since independence, a significant improvement in India’s economy has been done but the result has not been reached to each and every section of the people. Therefore inclusive growth is the only approach for the balanced overall socio economic development in India. It is a political, social and economic necessity of India in this century. References: Banik, N. (2009) “Trade and social development: the case study of Asia”. Asia pacific research and training network on Trade. Working papers no 68, \united Nations UACAP, June. Business today (2010)”Betting on Firms”, August 8, New Delhi. Chakraborty K.C (2011), “Financial Inclusion and Banks: Issues and Perspectives”, RBI Bulletin, November, 2011. CMIE (1997) Profits of status. Chakraborty K.C (2011), “Financial Inclusion: A Road India needs to Travel”, RBI Bulletin, November, 2011. Chakraborty K.C (2013), “Financial Inclusion in India: Journey so far and the way forward”, Key note address at Finance Inclusion Conclave organized by CNBC TV 18 at New delhi. International monitory fund (2006). Regional and Economic Outlook. Washington. Probhu,S.(2001)Economic reforms and social sector development, New Delhi, Sage publication. Planning Commission, Government of India, 10th Five years plan. Reserve Bank of India: Finances of State Government.

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Access to Teaching Learning Materials among the General and Special Education Teachers in the School System: A Study Dr. S. K. Panneer Selvam Assistant Professor, Department of Education, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, E-mail:skpskpbdu@gmail.com ABSTRACT Teachers are innovating and developing TLM according to the needs of the learners. Learners should be the center of instruction and learning. The role of teachers is to help learners to learn. Teachers have to follow the curriculum and provide, make, or choose materials. They may adapt, supplement, and elaborate on those materials and also monitor the progress and needs of the students. Materials include textbooks, video and audio tapes, computer software, and visual aids. They influence the content and the procedures of learning. The choice of deductive vs inductive learning, the role of memorization, the use of creativity and problem solving, production vs. reception, and the order in which materials are presented are all influenced by the materials. Teaching materials is a generic term used to describe the resources teachers use to deliver instruction.

Key Words: Innovation, Instruction, Curriculum, Creativity, Influence Introduction Teaching Learning Materials (TLM) are the supportive sources for the learners to learn the contents. Some of the TLMs are customized where as others are readily available in the markets. Teaching materials can support student learning and increase student success. Ideally the teaching materials will be tailored to the content in which they are being used to the students and the teacher in the class. Teaching materials come in many shapes and sizes, but they all have in common the ability to support student learning.Teaching materials here refers to teaching aids used when teachers carryout their activities in class room such as chalk ,writing board, charts, apparatus , specimens , concrete materials, photographs, pictures , maps ,globes , cassettes , video recording, transparencies , projectors and computers.Every learning material we develop will be an asset for us. An investment of time or money in good teaching materials is an investment in good teaching. This study will focus on magnitude of availability and accessibility of teaching learning materials with the teachers who are interacting with the students including children with special needs. Aim and Objective The main aim is to find out the accessibility of teaching learning materials to the general and special education teachers. 1. To find out the availability of teaching and learning materials in the class room for general and special education teachers. 2. To find out the accessibility of teaching learning materials in the class room to teach the children. 3. To find out the incidence of using the teaching learning materials in the class room by general and special education teachers. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Method: Survey method was adopted in this study. Samples Purposive sampling 149 teachers consisting of 82General Education Teachers from 5 different schools and 67 Special Education Teachers working in SSA Projects up to secondary levelwere selected for this study. Tool A questionnaire consisting of 28 teaching learning materials widely used in general education and special education programme is constructed and administered with the guidelines of scoring each items on Available and used frequently (2) Available but used rarely (1) Not available (0). Procedure The tool was constructed and administered on the general and special education teachers working in public school by indicating their choice on each items of Teaching Learning Material in the following manner Available and used frequently (2) Available but used rarely (1) Not available (0). The confidentiality on their response is promised by the author. Result and Discussion After collecting information from the teachers the scores were tabulated and interpreted for the study. It is learnt that the materials of Chalk and board, Chart &flash cards models, work book, poster and text are commonly available and frequently used by both general and special education teachers. Computer, laptop is available and frequently used by the general education teachers where as ABL materials, mobility aids and sign languages are frequently used by the special education teachers. Pictures/Icons, graphics are rarely used materials by the general education teachers where as video, TV, tape, laptop, signature guide; adapted pencils are used rarely by the special education teachers. Braille, Abacus, mobility cane, sign language and ABL materials are not used by general education teachers. Whereas Computers, laptop, animation, graphics, film and slides are not used by the special education teachers. Films and graphics are not used by general and special education teachers respectively. Table I: Access to TLM among the general and special education teachers Frequency distribution: Access to TLMs by the Access to TLMs by Educators Special educators variable Total Sl.no Not Rarely Frequently Not Rarely Frequently used used used used used used 1 Chalk board 0 3 79 96% 2 65 97% 149 2 Chart and flash card 6 0 76 92% 1 7 59 88% 149 3 Models 6 11 65 79% 9 19 39 58% 149 4 Video 71 5 6 7% 16 42 9 13% 149 5 Television 73 5 4 4% 16 32 19 28% 149 Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Access to TLMs by the Access to TLMs by Educators Special educators Sl.no variable Total Not Rarely Frequently Not Rarely Frequently used used used used used used 6 Film 77 5 0 39 22 6 8% 149 7 audio 58 10 14 17% 20 29 18 26% 149 8 Slide 67 4 11 13% 35 26 6 8% 149 9 Tape 51 15 16 19% 19 29 19 28% 149 10 Work Book 12 7 63 76% 9 18 40 59% 149 11 Poster 19 12 51 62% 29 22 16 23% 149 12 Text 10 01 71 86% 16 15 36 53% 149 13 Braille 57 04 21 25% 29 30 08 11% 149 14 Abacus 63 03 16 19% 27 24 16 23% 149 15 Mobility Can 75 02 05 6% 25 29 13 19% 149 16 Sign language 64 03 15 18% 12 23 32 47% 149 17 ABL 46 08 28 34% 09 08 50 74% 149 18 Mobility Aid 60 06 16 19% 23 18 26 38% 149 19 Book rest 47 08 27 32% 25 28 14 20% 149 20 Signature guide 19 28 35 42% 29 23 15 22% 149 21 stencils 40 22 20 24% 27 23 17 25% 149 22 Tripod pencil or pen 20 16 46 56% 23 23 20 29% 149 23 Computer 14 16 52 63% 25 23 19 28% 149 Adapted key board 24 27 17 38 44% 35 19 13 19% 149 mouse 25 laptop 31 25 26 31% 28 28 11 16% 149 26 animation 36 30 16 19% 36 25 06 8% 149 27 Pictures/ Icon 20 41 21 25% 28 21 18 26% 149 28 Graphics 29 38 15 18% 60 7 0 149 Graph: Showing the result of access to TLM in the class room by General and Special education teachers. Recommendation Teachers working in the public school system need to understand the shift from using traditional materials to the innovated materials according to the needs of children with diversified in nature. The materials need to be explored by the teachers and the students as well to optimize the learning. Use of computer should be practiced by the special education teachers for successful mainstreaming. The management may give the liberty to explore and innovate the materials according to the needs of the diversified group of learning. In-service training may be organized to innovate and develop TLM to cater the diversified group of learners. There is a need to conduct more study in this area to innovate and develop appropriate TLM which is access to all categories of learners and the teachers.

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Conclusion Majority of the TLM which is used in the public schools are traditionally prepared in natures which are used regularly. The innovated materials which are available in the public school to teach the students with diversified needs are minimal and used rarely. Use of computer for teaching and learning is more common with the general education teachers than the special education teachers. References Allwright, R. L. (1990). What do we want teaching materials for? In R. Rossner and R. Bolitho, (Eds.), Currents in language teaching. Oxford University Press HalilEksi (2008) A case study on the use of materials by classroom teachers ,KasimYildirim Educational Sciences Theory and Practice 8(1) January 2008 ,305-322 Pisha and Coyne (2001) Incorporating Universal Design for learning principles in to the class room design. Prema P (2009) Instructional and nurturant effect of Activity Based Learning An impact study in selected districts of Tamil Nadu. SSA TN Report Santhanam.P (2005). Remedial programmers for children with learning difficulties. SSA TN Report.

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Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer: A Study of a Socially Segregated Society Goutam Barman Ph. D. Research, Scholar, Seacom Skills University, West Bengal, India, E-mail: goutamenglish@rediffmail.com ABSTRACT Cyrus Mistry, an Indian Parsi novelist, conjures up within the campus of his DSC prize winning novel “Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer” the appalling conditions of the nearly invisible community of Parsi corpse bearers, the khandias. Mostly the ordinary penury-afflicted Parsi people take up the job of khandias for alleviating their aching poverty. They do such an emergency service as is the corpse bearing and the subsequent purification of the corpses. They carry the bodies of the deceased from the bereaved family to the Towers of Silence for performing the ritualistic purification of the corpses and then leaving them exposed to be eaten by the scavenger birds, the vultures. The khandias are the marginalized and segregated untouchable sub-caste of the Parsi community. They are described as the socially outcast, ‘the god of unclean’, ‘the untouchables to the core’. They are deprived of their due payment and hypocritically convinced of the benevolent mentality of the Parsi Panchayet.

Key Words: Khandias, Parsi, Segregation, the Towers of Silence, Untouchable Cyrus Mistry was born into an Indian Parsi community. He was commissioned to write a proposal about the life of khandias for channel4 documentary. Though, the documentary was never turned into a film. A novel entitled Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer took its birth out of this documentary from the mighty pen of Cyrus Mistry. Mistry is the second after Jeet Thayil to win the annual DSC price amounting $50,000 for the South Asian Literature at the Jaipur Literature Festival, 2014 for the novel. Set in Bombay in the first half of the last century, against the backdrop of the Independence Movement the riveting novel spans 60 years of Mumbai’s history from the early 1940s to the 20th century. Most parts of the novel are enveloped with the details of the life of the Parsi corpse bearers, the khandias despite the scanty political references to Mahatma Gandhi’s ‘Quit India’ movement and the Parsi priests of the fire temple, the tragic love accounts, betrayal and revenge theme. The khandias are the lowest marginalized sub-caste of the already small Parsi community. This marginalized community is seen as the ‘untouchable’ ‘god of unclean’ and ‘sources of contamination who are forbidden from normal interaction with others’. (7) They are, according to Khushwant Singh, the people from a little known segment of the Parsi community. Parsis do not cremate or bury their dead bodies. It is their religious customs for the dead bodies to be carried to the Towers of Silence from the bereaved family, purified in the funeral chamber of the Tower, exposed to decompose and to be eaten by the scavenger birds, the vultures. All the rituals relating to the dead bodies are rigorously and unfailingly maintained by the Khandias and Nussesalars, a small ‘invisible’ sub-caste of the Parsi community. They are allotted small quarters to reside inside the premises of the Towers of Silence. Cyrus Mistry throws light on the wretched plight of this most humiliated, isolated, segregated and deprived so-called ‘untouchable’ sub-caste of the Parsi community in his chronicle. Naturally the poor downtrodden people of Parsi community seek the job of khandia for their livelihood and safe living quarters. The author conjures up within the campus of his Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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novel such poor Parsi families who act as Khandias. Temoorus, formerly a ‘known profligate and hooligan of the locality’ married Rudabeh, a rejected sister of a Parsi head priest of a fire temple. Because of the excessive drinking habit of Temoorus the unhappiness and severe penury led Rudabeh to seek assistance of her brother Framroze to find a job. At the mercy of the Parsi Panchayet and with the help of Framroze, Temoorus got a job of a khandia at the Towers of Silence. From then on Temoorus and his successors became socially outcast and so-called untouchables in the eyes of the so-called high Parsi community, though they were initially not so. Similarly Phiroze Elchidana, a son of head priest of a fire temple, willingly embraced the job of a khandia for marrying Sepideh, a daughter of the khandia, Temoorus and became socially ostracized. Kobaad, another member of the corpse bearers, was the son of a small trader who moved to Mumbai to improve his fortunes by trading. But by irony of fate, after his father’s unexpected demise under the ferocious feet of a mad bull, he had to take up the job of corpse bearing and reside at the quarters allotted for the khandias at the enclosed premises of the Towers of Silence. Rustom, the most senior member in the group of the khandias, in his previous life, lost his father, mother and sister, took street as his living place. But with the help of a worker at the Parsi Panchayet he got the job of a khandia. The job of the Khandias attracts mental courage and patience. After bringing the dead bodies to the Towers of Silence they have to pass through the stringent customs dictated by the holy Strictures. According to Phiroze, “It’s a job that takes courage and strength ...rubbing the dead man’s forehead, his chest, palms and the soles of his feet with strongsmelling bull’s urine, anointing every orifice of the body with it before dressing him up again in fresh muslins and knotting the sacred thread around his waist. All the while making sure the pile of faggots on the censer breathes easy and the oil lamp stays alive through the night; all this, before we retire ourselves past midnight”. (10) The khandias save the corpses from the recontamination at the hands of the over emotive mourners. They also prevent the ‘living’ from the contamination supposedly spewed by the corpses. They save the corpses and their mourners at the risk of their own life. According to the Scripture, “all corpses radiate an invisible but harmful effluvium”. (13) The nussesalar performs the prescribed ‘ablutions, prophylactics and prayers to protect the general populace and themselves from the noxious effects of the dead”. (13) The work of the Khandias is physically very strenuous and rough. There are thirteen khandias in total and a hearse-driver, Jungoo. There is only one hearse pressed for carrying corpse. The hearse almost all the time lays defunct. Then the khandias are to carry the human carcasses with the solid heavy iron bier weighing nearly eight pounds on their shoulders along all the way to the Towers of Silence from the mournful families. All the corpses are not lean by death. Some positively swell gaining weight. They have to reach to the Towers before the sunset with this accumulative weight. With this they have to endure the smell of sickness and pus and the stinking corpses. During the carriage of the corpses they do not even get a single minute to take rest or drink. During one such corpse bearing under the glaring sun Phiroze topples the corpse off the bier being physically exhausted and faint. As a punishment Phiroze along with all other corpse bearers are given letter of suspension and an inquiry is pending into this ‘disgraceful’ incident. All of them are called on to the office of the Parsi Panchayet. All expect Phiroze are released from the liability of the guilt. But Phiroze is not exonerated from the guilt. As punishment he is kept ‘on probation’ for the job. The Khandias are perennially oppressed and deprived of their due wages, incommensurate with their back-breaking hard aching labours, by the Parsi Panchayet Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Trustee. They are actually very poor. They cannot meet both ends together-‘from week to week, even day to day’ (33). Many have large dependent members. They get meager financial support from the trustee for their corpse bearing and its disposal. They are to work almost whole day without overtime compensation and without any leave. When Jungoo, the hearse driver, got entangled in a accident with a lorry with no fault of him but for the fault of the lorry-driver on way to the corpse collection and became hospitalized, the trustee refused to pay expenses of the hospital as compensation. To suppress the would-be agitative disturbances among the khandias for not getting the due wages they are hypocritically brainwashed that they will get reward in the next lifetime for their service in this lifetime. They say if the nussesalars perform their duties diligently scrupulously, they will forever not tread the “cycle of rebirth, decrepitude and death” (107). Above all the Parsi Panchayet treats the khandias as its ‘own children’. Though the corpse bearers do such an important work, they are treated abusively and contemptuously by the other Parsis of the society. They bear a stigmatized existence socially. They almost always fall prey to humiliation and insultation due to the slightest inadvertent encroachment upon the others’ jurisdiction. Khandias must perform the rituals of selfpurification on daily basis if they are to interact with others, but often they do not venture out of their claustrophobic living quarters at Doongerwadi atop the Malabar hills. Whenever they bear corpses along the general public ways, the pedestrians hatefully swerve from their path. They are considered ‘as shit, the very embodiment of excrement…untouchable to the core’ (17). The khandias can not share the benches with other members of the Parsi tribe. If they do so, they are ‘fined by Coyaji or even thrashed by self-important and wrathful members of their tribes for taking rest on a bench intended for public use or merely leaning against a wall in one of the pavilions during large funerals that teemed with mourners.’(20) Even after the purification job of his own mother’s dead body Phiroze could not share the same benches which was occupied by his own father Framroze and his brother Vispy. He had to take other single chair supplied by Temoorus. They cannot even inattentively touch on their way out of the Towers any part of the mourners the purification of the dead body of whose family they have just finished. Mistry gives a pathetic example of humiliation Phiroze suffers at the hands of one of the mourners. When coming out of the very chamber of the Towers after the purification work Phiroze inattentively brushed the shoe of the one of the mourners seated on a benches along with crowds of family and friends, the man sprang to his feet immediately from his closed- eyes-rumination and began trembling like a ‘leaf’. He lost no time to hurl abusive words at Phiroze and protested in all possible way for his defilement at his hands. But he abstained from any further attack on Phiroze in fear of any further touch. When Framroze, Phiroze’s father, listened to the Phiroze’s intention of marrying Seppy, daughter of a khandia, and becoming a khandia-cum-nussesalar, he said that “You would…remain an outcast, don’t forget. Ostracized from society, unable to meet your family…” and also added “ Even if you went through all the purificatory rite and rituals, and even if I[Framroze] was sure you had been through them diligently and precisely, without being lax or slipshod, I still wouldn’t want you to enter my temple…do you understand?” (84) To get out of this inhuman deprivations Phiroze and Rustom, on behalf of all the khandias, chalked out a charter of reasonably modest demands for “eight-hour working day, overtime compensation and a fixed entitlement of ten day’s casual leave in a year” (167) and submitted it to the Parsi Panchayet office, Phiroze and most senior Rustom were sent the dismissal letters thinking two of them the ‘ringleaders’. To protest against this dismissal letters and for their rights all the khandias went on strike. Finding no way out and facing Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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criticism from all corners the Parsi Panchayet granted all of their demands and unconditional reinstatement of Phiroze. Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer offers a complete picture of how the khandias and nussesalars are exploited and sidelined from the mainstream Parsi society in spite of their invaluable existence in the Parsi socio-cultural milieu. The scavenging activity of the khandias like corpse bearing earns them the stigmatized beings. The members of the mainstream society deem them the god of unclean and push them to lead a marginalized segregated life. Reference •

Mistry, Cyrus. Chronicle of a Corpse Bearer. New Delhi: Aleph Book Company, 2012.( All the references kept in parentheses are taken from the novel)

Webliography • • • • •

http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Mistry_(writer) http://www.goodreads.com shttp://blogs.wsj.com/books/cyrus-mistry-on-numb.. www. the hinder.com/books/a-legacy/article3716418 ece. www.dnindia.com/lifestyle/review-book-review-chronicle-of-a-corpse-bearer-173560

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The Role of NGOs in Empowering Women in West Bengal Jilkod Mamun Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, R.B.C. College for Women, Naihati, District - North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, E-mail: jilkodmamun.kln@gmail.com “To call woman the weaker sex is a libel; it is man’s injustice to woman. If by strength is meant brute strength, then, indeed, is woman less brute than man, if by strength is meant moral power, then woman is immeasurably mans superior. Has she not greater intuition, is she not more self-sacrificing, has she not greater powers of endurance, has she not greater courage, without her, man couldn’t be. If nonviolence is the law of our being, the future is with woman. Who can make a more effective appeal to the heart than woman?” – Mahatma Gandhi

Introduction India has made tremendous problem in various socio-economic and political front since independence. The economic growth of the nation during the past two decades has been phenomenal. In-spite of all these achievements, the nation is far behind in a few core areas of human dignity and social justice. Gender injustice is one of them. Gender injustice has played unabated roles throughout the history of India with serious results in denial and outright restrain of the rights of women in various aspects of social life. Gender discrimination and women’s rights abuse have been systematic and deep rooted problems with various dimensions like religion, culture, economics etc across the country. In the name of religion, tradition and culture so many groups methodically subjugate women to multiple forms of oppressions. Manifestations of gender injustice include the patriarchal form of keeping women in subordinate positions, the evil system of dowry imposed for marriage, the economic structure that systematically discriminates against women, imposition of domestic chores and sexual harassment. The recent high profile case of barbaric rapes and torture of women, including the national capital region, clearly shows that injustice against woman still exists at extreme level. Contrary to all the claims of achievement in gender equality, these recent and other cases of rapes and abuse of women in both urban and rural India are extremely disturbing to core human conscience. When the news of these violence against women came out, it was not just a national news but the news that seized worlds attention and opinion about the way women right are blatantly abused in a nation which supposedly has a tradition of glorifying the role of women in its society. Present day of women scaling the heights of human achievements on the global stage, the cavemen mentality of considering women at a lower stature than men still continues. While Indian women have shown highest professional accomplishment, subjugating to just the roles of procreation and household chores is truly against the sprit of modern India. Female population of India is 48.5% of total population. But their work growth is very slow. Gender neutrality in pay position, promotional opportunity is non-existent salary gaps between men and women are seen, lack of career advancement opportunities of women workers also seen in India. In policy making process in public and private sector does not allow women community while the government has failed to protect women’s rights. It has been very slow in responding to the issues of violation against women’s rights. Fortunately Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the Non Governmental Organization (NGO) has taken many initiatives to protect women’s rights and women empowerment. They have made various development platforms and taken many strategies. The women empowerment has been one of the central issues in the process of development of countries all over the world including India. Initially we should know separately women empowerment and NGOs. Meaning of Women Empowerment The word empowerment means that the women have the potential power or capacity to regulate their day to day lives in the social, political and economic areas - a power or capacity which enables them to move from the periphery of social Status to the central stage of domination. Empowerment is an active multi-dimensional process which enables women to establish their identity and realize power to have a definite say in determining social variables like family planning, family management, social participation etc. Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social or economic strength of individuals and communities. It often involve the empower developing confidence in their own capacities. Empowerment is probably the totality of the following as similar capabilities. • • • • • • • • •

Having decision-making of their own Having access to information and resources for taking proper decision. Having a range of options form which you can make choices. Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making. Having positive thinking on the ability to make change Ability to learn skills for improving one’s or group power. Ability to change others perceptions by democratic means. Involving in the growth process and changes that in never ending and self initiated. Increasing one’s positive self image and overcoming ….

However, gender empowerment conventionally refers to the empowerment of women, and has become a significant topic of discussion in regards to development and economics. It can be also point to approach regarding other marginalized genders in a particular political on social content. This approach to empowerment is partly informed by feminism and employed legal empowerment by building on international human rights. Empowerment is one of the main procedural concerns when addressing human rights and development. The millennium development goals and other credible approaches/ goal point empowerment and participation as a necessary step of country is to overcome the obstacles associated with poverty development. Meaning of NGOs A non - governmental organization (NGO) is any non profit, voluntary citizens groups which is organized on a local, national or international level. NGOs perform a variety of service and humanitarian functions, bring citizen concerns to Governments advocate and monitor policies and encourage political participation through provision of information. Some are organized around specific issues, such as human rights, environmental or health. They provide analysis and expertise serve as early warning mechanism and help monitor and implement international arrangements. Their relationship with office and agencies of the United Nations Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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system differs depending on their goals, their venue and the mandate of a particular institution. In these days we are very much familiar with the term NGOs (non-governmental organizations). The term is loosely defined as a set of groups, which are also known as voluntary organizations, voluntary agencies, action groups, non-profit sector etc. In the U.N. terminology they are called non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Simply, NGOs are by nature non-profit, non-governmental and also non-political in the conventional sense (Sethi, 1983). Such organizations are not to make profit out of their services rendered to the people. And they are not to be part of the official governmental machinery. Moreover, these organizations are non - political in the sense that they do not participate in any direct manner in the electoral politics of the state. NGOs are primarily composed of people who want to work for the poor and for the down-trodden people. These highly sensitized classes of people are totally dissatisfied with the developmental thinking and activities of the government and hence have involved themselves in a range of activities, from development with political perspective to militant organization of the masses. Their aim is to change the society based on stark inequality to a more equitable one. It would be pertinent here to point out how NGOs as defined above have become so relevant to the issue of development. Following the process of decolonization since the 1940s, two models of development -the liberal capitalist and the Marxian socialist competed for the attention of the emerging third world countries. Models accepted by third world countries mainly in India have been emerged from both these models and have exhibited centralized, state-led and non-democratic features. These included centralization of development as a techno-economic process, emphasizing on industrialization and capital formation and growth (Todaro,1977). However, the limitations of these models have been strikingly exposed over the decades. The state sponsored development efforts have largely failed due to lack of democracy, more specifically; public participation and decentralization which are major features of democracy have often been absent. As a result, the conception of an alternative development model is gaining currency. Its emphasis is on utilization of local resources and the involvements of the population. Therefore, it is felt that the NGOs with their localized character can contribute sufficiently to this process of alternative development. On the whole, in the matter of democratic development, the role of NGOs is significant (Kothari, 1981, 1986, 1987). In the beginning of 1980s several developed and developing countries started thinking of privatization, liberalization and withdrawal of state from the social sector programmes like education, health and environment etc. because there was a movement against the state incapability to tackle the problems of neglected and susceptible groups of society (Bhambri, 1987). Many third world countries that were facing balance of payment problems reduced their budget from social sector and started taking loan from IMF, World Bank for survival of country's stable economy. During the implementation of IMF and World Bank programme, an understanding was developed that investment in public sector was wasteful and therefore the emphasis on NGOs was better. It is evident that where government failed to reach out to the marginalized sections and created gap, NGOs could bridge the same and henceforth at the start of new millennium, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), along with others, I share a sense of excitement about new possibilities, tampered by wide spread anxiety about the future Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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(Edwards, Hulme and Wallace, 2004: 1). Since the beginning of 1980s, the activities of NGOs have been growing world wide in terms of their size and scope, and also in terms of their number and volume of aid. In India, voluntary organizations or non-Governmental organizations have a long history. In the nineteenth and early twentieth century on the one hand, para state organizations mainly of the Christian churches and missionaries came into existence to intervene in the social and religious life of the indigenous population through improvement of health, political welfare and social reform. On the other hand, as part of anti-colonial resistance, numerous indigenous organizations emerged to accelerate social and religious reform (Seth & Sethi, 1996). In fact more involvement and initiatives of NGOs have been occurring in India since late 1970s, for instance, the FCRA (1976), the CAARD (Report of the committee of Review the Existing Administrative Arrangements for Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation) report (1985), seventh five years plan (1985-1990), etc. motivated the NGO sector for country’s all-round development. Side by side governments have introduced Panchayati Raj System in rural areas and Municipality in urban area to implement the democratic decentralization of participatory democracy which is also part of development. Government is to some extent unable to reach out to the general mass due to governability crisis and in that time NGOs have entered into the development process. At present, NGOs have become very crucial in the process of decentralization of power and development (Mathew, 1999). NGOs encourage the elected representatives to strengthen Panchayats financially by collecting taxes, fees, etc. from the villages and educate the poor in attending the gramsabha meeting to make a vibrant bodies [Rajsekhar (ed), 2000]. Objectives of the Study Government has failed to address gender inequalities and inequities in modern India. As result, various movements have happened for advancement of women, women leaders and NGOs have started movement in the 1960s and 1970s then womens’ rights movement began to take shape. Women’s rights movements have created in biased social and economic structure. It is takes as constitutional and other eight based approaches. Women’s welfare movement also focused on the welfare and rehabilitation of the women were victim of domestic and other violence against them. Economic right has become key issue of another women’s movement. Right, welfare and economic liberty these three movements all together is known empowerment movement. Since the mid 1970, several NGOs have emerged to address economic self-sufficiency of women through micro-loans and other schemes. NGOs continue to make a impact in the lives of millions women, both rural and urban areas by providing income generation programmes. NGOs have taken another theme for women empowerment through education. They increased awareness on the importance of knowledge as a way to achieve professional careers and participate in political process. Another form of women empowerment emerged from the feminist movement which began to show all social, cultural or religious barriers to the advancement of women. NGOs have achieved considerable successes in various fronts. Currently reports and information released by medium women development NGOs through their website and other printed materials. The researchers have studies on local and regional level. NGOs have provided that women achieve considerable level of knowledge, economic and political Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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empowerment by being members or beneficiaries of them (Kilby 2011, Margaret Kala, 2013; Brahmbhatt and Sheth 2013). This study has attempted to focus on the level of empowerment of women of some NGOs in selected districts of West Bengal. • •

To study whether selected NGOs provide empowerment to the women. To assess whether selected NGOs help in offering basic amenities in the up-liftment of the society. • To study how selected NGOs have played a pivotal role in solving various problems of women. • To identify the role of NGOs in managing human resource effectively. Sample Collections This study has been done on a few NGOs of West Bengal. 1) All Bengal Women’s Union 2) Sreema Mahila Samity 3) Chapra Social Economic welfare Association 4) CINI (Murishidabad Branch) Hypothesis of the Study •

Selected NGOs provide empowerment to the women.

•

Selected NGOs help in offering basic amenities in the upliftment of the Society.

•

There is no significant difference in selected NGOs regarding Legal, Social and economical support to the needy women in their area.

•

NGOs played a pivotal role in solving various problems of women and managing human Resource effectively.

Methodology This research study is based on a sample of NGOs operating with in state of West Bengal especially in Nadia and Murshidabad district and their governmental mechanism that in panchayet, panchayet samity and zilla parisad of those districts. In this research work survey method is followed in order to collect data. The present research is done to rely on both interviews techniques and analysis of documents of secondary data. The data are collected from NGO activists, the beneficiaries of the NGOs, Publications, journals, books brought out by the NGOs themselves. To achieve the objectives of the study, primary data has been collected from NGOs. Simple random sampling technique is used for selection of respondent and total samples selected for the study were 50 persons. (a) Data analysis and discussion; (b) Views of the respondent about the nature of selected NGOs; (c) Views of the respondents on the legal aspects of the selected NGOs;

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(d) Views of the respondents on the economic aspects of the selected NGOs, Strategies Taken by NGOs Because gender discrimination and women's rights abuse are systemic, deep-rooted problems with various dimensions (religious, cultural, economic, etc.) across the country, solutions to address them also need to be multi-dimensional and holistic involving various sectors of the society. Women empowerment NGOs, due to their mission-focused nature, are in unique position to play pivotal roles to link various players including the general public, communities, religious groups, governments, and businesses. They also highlight various issues of gender inequality and inequity in order to stimulate responses from them. Although the typology and scopes of NGOs with overall missions of women empowerment vary, four types of them have high impacts and are more visible than the others. They are: grassroots women self-help NGOs, women’s rights advocacy NGOs, women’s economic development NGOs, and international women empowerment NGOs. Grassroots Women's Self-Help NGOs grow from within communities, initiated by women leaders or groups to promote the welfare and economic opportunities of women who are community residents. They focus on short-term income generation projects, such as cottage industries for women in communities, so that long term empowerment can be achieved. Grassroots women's self-help group NGOs need little or no intervention from outsiders, I although information and technical advice from other established women NGOs can help them greatly in their efforts and impacts. During the past few years, there is a tremendous growth of this type of grassroots NGOs around the country both in urban and rural areas. Women Rights Advocacy NGOs are typically established by leaders with strong feminist ideology or group of people who desire to address one or more aspects of women's rights abuse. Strategies of advocacy environmental NGOs focus on raising public awareness on women rights abuse, their impacts, and other issues in order to prevent them. They advocate for gender equality through various measures including activism. They support women activists and organise public protests that are often the most effective methods to mobilise the public and get the attention of law-makers. They link people with the political processes, so that they can demand responses from governments based on their constitutional and other rights. They partner with local media to get the word out in order to increase awareness among the public about women’s rights issues and the needs to address them. They act as watch dog groups to protect the rights of women from abuse by social groups, caste groups and religious groups that methodically subjugate women to multiple forms of oppressions in the name of tradition, culture and religion. Women Economic Development NGOs strive to promote financial self-sufficiency of women through economic development. They provide direct social service, with missions to address specific needs of women such as education, health care, and income generation within the broad development framework. Based on the needs, they 'design and implement projects that benefit women from underserved or un-served communities. Access to micro loans and other opportunities offered by development NGOs have truly transformed the status of women in communities across the nation, especially in rural areas where women have long been excluded in income generation and family financial management. They have also been instrumental in the impressive growth of women in the national workforce. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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International Women Empowerment NGOs operate in a variety of areas that address various global-level gender injustice issues, especially such issues faced by women in developing nations. They often develop collaborative partnerships with local and national NGOs to address specific issues that affect women in societies. The also bring technical old financial resources to address issues of gender inequality and inequity. Findings •

Majority of the selected women were married and having primary or secondary level educations.

•

Majority of the respondents were living in their own house.

•

Almost all selected candidates were satisfied with their role in their NGOs.

•

Respondents received legal help for marriage, divorce and its registration remarriage, adoption and some miscellaneous purpose.

•

As per them their NGOs helped at individual level as well as the family and community.

•

NGOs helped in promoting awareness and sensitize the people regarding women empowerment.

•

As a part of legal support the NGOs provide legal counseling, help in cases of domestic violence, construct short stay home and help for rehabilitation of women.

•

They also provide social support to their beneficiaries in the form of improving women empowerment, like decision making, self – respect, freedom of movement, entertainment, social gathering, children education etc.

•

Organizations (NGOs) also work on providing knowledge on personal entertainment, diet and life stay.

•

Majority of the respondents opined that due to the efforts of NGOs, their life style was drastically changed. Now respondents are involved in decision making process in their family.

•

There was higher proportion of respondents who had habit to save money.

•

A few respondents have not received any financial help from NGOs.

•

Most of the respondents have received consolidated finance from NGOs.

There is a significant difference in knowledge of respondents about promoting women empowerment by their NGOs. Brief Activities of a Few NGOs Sreema Mahila Samity: It is a Nadia district based organization that had started their journey since 1972. It is entire Board in composed by women. This organization does microfinance, Community Based Disaster Preparedness (CBDP). Wealth and general welfare Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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activities for improving the quality of life of the community. SMS leads the way in creating a better environment for the community. SMS leads microfinance, CBDP, Health, Children, Education and Nutrition, Environment, General working & Activities. Family counseling, strengthing community promoting leadership, women’s day celebration etc. SMS has promoted more than 7500 active self-help groups in Nadia, Murshidabad and North 24 Parganas in West Bengal. SMS believes, understands and acts as a responsible and participated in all relevant issues that go in the making of better society and better community. They emphasized on capacity building of SHGs on micro-financing it imparts various training on environmental issues, education or health awareness. It raises the voice against gender biasness or fight against malpractices in the community. SMS basically signifies its principles ethics carry on sensitization program on different rights and awareness. It has always remained aware and awakened to various gender and other issues. It has rendered an extraordinary appeal to all it activities and patched applaud and recognition from every relevant sector. But the path is never ending. To carry on with its mammoth task and goal it needs active cooperation and understanding and contribution all of you who wants to see tomorrow’s world a much better place than today. CINI (Murshidabad, 1991): Murshiabad unit of CINI is to serve women and children living in deprived communities in the district through effective monitoring of social programs and collaborating with main development partners, especially the government and panchayati raj institution. The strong relationship established with district authorities, government departments and communities. It helps to mobilize a large number of women’s self-help groups and engage them in promoting local development participation by women and children in local governance. They have made a vibrant NGO forum to promote visibility of women and children in the district level programme and financial planning. CINI Murshidabad is regarded as a resource agency for the district in the areas of child protection and education, by both institutional and community partners. All Bengal Womens Union: It was started in the 1932, a group of like minded women formed ABWU to help the helpless, exploited and victimized fellow women. The genesis of the group lied in the fact that trafficking in women and children had increased to an unprecedented extent in West Bengal. This NGO attempts to address the problem. This NGOs engaged with authority, Business, Dowry, Finance, Gender and Media, Gender law and policy, Gender violence, Girls education, women’s opinion. This welfare organization gives free legal aid to the deserving and needy as per provisions of the legal service Authorities Act. An ABWU main aim is to abolish the commercialization and exploitation of women and young girls and provide them with safe shelter, food, education and vocational training. It provides shelter homes for destitute children and initiate training programme on stitching and embrodery for needy girls. Chapra Social and Economic Welfare Association (1991, SEWA): This organization with its limited resources has been trying to address indentified problems of the target area for bringing change in community attitude, habits and practice for better standers living livelihood, equal justice and dignity of life. Programmes have been categorized as per following activities for better understanding (i) Health Programme (ii) Education Programme (iii) Community capacity building programme (iv) Empowerment of women – promotion of self help group , vocational skill development training- income generation programme (v)

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Environment and sanitation programme (vi) Rescues and Rehabilitation programme (vii) Networking Programme (viii) Advocacy programme. Suggestions •

NGOs should work hard in the area of implementation of interventional measures in health.

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Government should monitor the activities and efforts given by NGOs and also provide financial as well as technical support to the NGOs.

•

Organizations should also organize awareness camp for male and motivate them to come forward in the way of women empowerment.

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Members of NGOs should provide mental and financial support to the women who want to go for higher education and if needed they should also counsel their parents / elders in the family.

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Social gathering, entertainment, education and self motivation are the key areas in which NGOs should put some more efforts.

Conclusion Overall there is a significant impact of NGOs on women of the selected areas. After joining organization, drastic changes are seen in the life style of women, now women have started earning money, becoming independent and self motivated. They can take their own decision in some matters and give their suggestions in family concerns. The study found significant difference in NGOs effort, forwarding implementation of interventional measures in the area of health, and to increase literacy level of women. After lots of efforts of NGOs in the area of women empowerment, still the situation is not improved at the paramount level. About 60% of the respondents said they had no power / freedom to spend their own money. It can be concluded that in West Bengal, there is a significant role of NGOs in women empowerment. In addition to their programme and projects in order to stay true to their missions, women empowerment NGOs needs to have organizational capacity to operate effectively and efficiently. They need to have good governance that promotes transparency and accountability. They should have active strategic planning process that will expand their scope on empowering women. They also need to mobilize steady revenues from various sources in order to continue their work. NGOs operating on all aspects of the advancement of women should constantly explore opportunities to network with other NGOs with similar mission for collaborative partnership. It can and should be done. Bibliography 1.

2. 3.

Ankita Brahmbhatt & Dr. Pinaki Sheth, “The role of NGOs in Empowerment and empirical study of the selected NGOs of India”; Asian journal of Multidimensional Research, Vol-2,3 March -2013. Anu Singh Lather, Shilpa Jain & Sona Vikas, 2009, Women Empowerment in Urban India: A study of working women professionals in Delhi, Delhi Business Review, Vol-10, No, 2. July. Bava, Noorjahan, Non-Governmental Organizations in Development: Theory and Practice, Kanishka, New Delhi-1996.

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

23.

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Bebbington and Riddle’ Heavy hands, Hidden hands, Holding hands? Donors, Intermediately NGOs and civil society organizations’ Hulmeand Edwards (ed), NGOs State and Donors, Earth scan, London, 1997. Bhambri, C.P. ‘The modern state and voluntary societies’ IJPA, Vol. XXXIII, No. 3, PP 395 to 398, 1987. Bhatt, Anil, Development and Social Justice, Sage, New Delhi, 1988. Bhattacharya, M. ‘Voluntary Associations, Development and the state’ IJPA, Vol. XXXIII, Pp. 33, 1987. Bhattacharya, M. Whether development: Rural development Panchayat Volags interface, AICFMED, Calcutta,1997. D. Rajasekhar (ed) Decentralized Government and NGOs- Issues, strategies and ways forward concept; New Delhi, 2000. David Lewis, Tina Wallace (ed), Development NGOs and challenges of change- New Roles of Relevance, Rawat Publications, New Delhi-2003. Humle, D. and M.Edwards, NGOs State and Donors: Too Close for Comfort? Macmillan, London, 1970. Kilby, P. NGOs in India: The Challenges of Women’s Empowerment and Accountability London: Routledge-2011. Kothari, R. ‘The non-party political process’ – Economics and Political Weekly, 19, 1984. Kothari, R. State against Democracy: In search of Human Governance, Ajanta, New Delhi, 1989. Mahatma Gandhi quote retrieved on Aug, 15 2014 from http://www.mkgandhi.org. Panda, S (2000) Women’s Empowerment through NGO Intervention: A framework for Assessment working paper, Institution of Rural Management. Rama Sahoo, 2008, Importance of women NGOs in alleviating poverty and improving the economic condition of the poor. Seth, D.L. ‘Grassroots initiative in India’, EPW, 1984. Sethi, H, ‘The immoral” Debate between party and non-party groups’, EPW, 1985. Sethi, H. “Groups in a new politics of transformation’ EPW, 12. 1984. Sheth, D.L. and Sethi. H, ‘The NGO Sector in India; Historical content and current discourse, ‘Development policy and Administration, Sage, New Delhi, pp. 281-301, 1996. T.N. Rao, 1988, Impact of Analysis of NGO intervention in development of rural women. Todaro, M.P., Economics Development in the Third World, Oxford, London, 1997.

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The New English of the Netizens: Impact of Social Media on English Language Lilack Biswas Assistant Professor, Department of English, Dinabandhu Mahavidyalaya, Bongaon, District - North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, E-mail: lilackbiswas@gmail.com ABSTRACT From unfriend to selfie, social media is clearly having an impact on language. As someone who writes about social media I’m aware of not only how fast these online platforms change, but also of how they influence the language in which we write. The words that surround us every day influence the words we use. Since so much of the written language we see is now on the screens of our computers, tablets, and smart phones, language now evolves partly through our interaction with technology. And because the language we use to communicate with each other tends to be more malleable than formal writing, the combination of informal, personal communication and the mass audience afforded by social media is a recipe for rapid change. From the introduction of new words to new meanings for old words to changes in the way we communicate, social media is making its presence felt.

Objectives This paper aims • •

to define social media to make an in depth search and a keen analysis of the ways English language in being influenced by social media.

What is Social Media? “Social media is a new driver of the convergent media sector. The term social media refers to technologies, platforms, and services that enable individuals to engage in communication from one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. While the Internet has always allowed individuals to participate in media not only as consumers but also as producers, the social aspect of media convergence...” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Social media is the social interaction among people in which they create, share or exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of usergenerated content." Furthermore, social media depend on mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms through which individuals and communities share, cocreate, discuss, and modify user-generated content. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations, communities, and individuals. Social media differ from traditional or industrial media in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy, and permanence. There are many effects that stem from internet usage. According to Nielsen, internet users continue to spend more time with social media sites than any other type of site. At the same time, the total time spent on social media in the U.S. across PC and mobile devices increased by 37 percent to 121 billion minutes in July 2012 compared to 66 billion minutes in July 2011. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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building reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income, as discussed in Tang, Gu, and Whinston (2012). Geocities, created in 1994, was one of the first social media sites. The concept was for users to create their own websites, characterized by one of six "cities" that were known for certain characteristics. The Size of Social Media (Why is it so important?) The Size of Social Media1 2016

The Geography of Social Media •

62% of adults worldwide now use social media

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65% of the world’s top companies have an active Twitter profile

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23% of Fortune 500 companies have a public-facing corporate blog

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58% of Fortune 500 companies have an active corporate Facebook account,

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62% of Fortune 500 have an active corporate Twitter account

In 2012, some 15% of online adults use Twitter, and 8% do so on a typical day. China is the most socially engaged market in the world, with 84% of Internet users contributing at least once a month to either social networking, blogging, video-uploading, photo-sharing, micro blogging or forums – they are followed by Russia, Brazil and India 44 per cent of all online users are in Asia, with China accounting for 485 million people Philippines has the highest 1

Source http://englishforsocialmedia.com/ http://www.businessinsider.in/A-Global-Social-Media-Census-The-Worlds-Largest-Social-NetworksAnd-Where-Their-Users-Come-From/articleshow/24953398.cms

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social media penetration, with more than 90% of its Internet users visiting a social networking site every month, followed by Australia at 89% and Indonesia at 88% Influences of Social Media Now-a-days social media is perhaps one of the most influential factors on almost every aspect of our day to day life. It has its influence on almost all aspects, but the fields where its influence is seen most dominantly are on youth, on education, on business, on children, on relationships, on politics, on society and on the medium of communication – the language itself. In our present study let us concentrate on the influences shed by social media particularly on the English language. Influence of Social Media on English Language Some people say social media is killing our language. Their arguments are innumerable, but they mostly cite the excessive usage of undecipherable initialisms, incorrect abbreviations, and cutesy emoticons. Others believe (a much smaller population, to be sure) that social media is not ruining language, but rather simply changing the ways in which we use language to express ourselves. And, to be clear, it really shouldn't be compared to other forms of written language because it's not actually written. What are these unfathomable arguments? And what does it have to do with marketers? Let's tackle the obvious question first. A T.E.D. talk by linguist John McWhorter covered the language of texting, but it applies to social media, too, as the abbreviations, emoticons, and idioms bleed into social media messages. This usage in social is natural but can also be explained by our increase in mobile usage of social media apps (91 percent of mobile Internet access is for social activities versus 79 percent on desktops, according to Microsoft Tag). McWhorter states that texting isn't really written language, but rather a form of spoken language. Spoken language is looser, telegraphic, and less reflective than written language. He calls it "fingered speech." McWhorter's presentation cites the familiar love-hate relationship that people have with the usage of "LOL." Rather than meaning "laugh out loud," LOL is now a marker for empathy and accommodation. It's what linguists call a "pragmatic particle," a word or phrase that is not connected semantically to the context of the sentence, but rather indicates the speaker's attitude. Other, more familiar pragmatic particles are "uh," "um," "like," and "you know." Speed Freaks: The Increasing Rate of Communication What social media has done is enable us to communicate with a much larger number of people on a global scale in a way that we only really used to be able to do on a local level. This is great when it means we’re keeping friendships alive over great distances, but it’s also increasing the demands placed on an individual to keep a much larger number of relationships going simultaneously. For example, the average number of friends a person has on Face book in the UK is around 300 – even if you’re only actually really friends with, say, 10% of that number that’s still 30 friendships to be maintaining. The result? An ever-increasing speed of communication. Facebook lets you communicate quickly, effectively and, most importantly, efficiently because written exchanges are concise and shared between all the friends you are connected with, meaning Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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you only need to write them once. On Twitter there’s a 140 character limit, so even if you’re not against the clock you are quite literally forced to make the statement brief. New Ways of Communicating An alphabet soup of acronyms, abbreviations, and neologisms has grown up around technologically mediated communication to help us be understood. I’m old enough to have learned the acronyms we now think of as text speak on the online forums and ‘internet relay chat’ (IRC) that pre-dated text messaging. On IRC, acronyms help speed up a real-time typed conversation. On mobile phones they minimize the inconvenience of typing with tiny keys. And on Twitter they help you make the most of your 140 characters. Emoticons such as ;-) and acronyms such as LOL (‘laughing out loud’ – which has just celebrated its 25th birthday) add useful elements of non-verbal communication – or annoy people with their overuse. This extends to playfulasterisk-enclosed stage directions describing supposed physical actions or facial expressions (though use with caution: it turns out that *innocent face* isno defence in court). An important element of Twitter syntax is the hashtag – a clickable keyword used to categorize tweets. Hashtags have also spread to other social media platforms – and they’ve even reached everyday speech, but hopefully spoofs such as Jimmy Fallon and Justin Timberlake’s sketch on The Tonight Show will dissuade us from using them too frequently. But you will find hashtags all over popular culture, from greetings cards and t-shirts to the dialogue of sitcom characters. Syntax aside, social media has also prompted a more subtle revolution in the way we communicate. We share more personal information, but also communicate with larger audiences. Our communication styles consequently become more informal and more open, and this seeps into other areas of life and culture. When writing on social media, we are also more succinct, get to the point quicker, operate within the creative constraints of 140 characters on Twitter, or aspire to brevity with blogs. New Words and Meanings Face book has also done more than most platforms to offer up new meanings for common words such as friend, like, status, wall, page, and profile. Other new meanings which crop up on social media channels also reflect the dark side of social media: a troll is no longer just a character from Norse folklore, but someone who makes offensive or provocative comments online; a sock puppet is no longer solely a puppet made from an old sock, but a self-serving fake online persona; and astroturfing is no longer simply laying a plastic lawn but also a fake online grass-roots movement. Social media is making it easier than ever to contribute to the evolution of language. You no longer have to be published through traditional avenues to bring word trends to the attention of the masses. While journalists have long provided the earliest known uses of topical terms – everything from 1794’spew-rent in The Times to beat boxing in The Guardian (1987) – the net has been widened by the ‘net’. A case in point is Oxford Dictionaries 2013 Word of the Year, selfie: the earliest use of the word has been traced to an Australian internet forum. With forums, Twitter, Face book, and other social media channels

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offering instant interaction with wide audiences, it’s never been easier to help a word gain traction from your armchair. Sites such as Wordnik and Urban Dictionary have entries for misspelled words like “dunno,” “l8r” and “aight.” Wordnik founder and lexicographer Erin McKean has told: “If a word is persuasive enough, and if your usage is provocative enough and feels real enough, you can make a word mean what you want it to mean.” The panelists alluded to this when sharing a breakdown of the definitions of “heyyyyy.” Many recent neologisms have originated through social media. “I’d say that the big keystone of success is if you can work a word into the English language based on your brand or based on your technology.” Case in point: “googled,” “friended,” “liked,” “tweeted,” “instagrammed” and “storified.” The word “friending,” Marie said, has actually “been a transitive word since the 13th century.” We just tend to use the word “befriend” instead. “It’s interesting to look at how the word ‘friending’ is changing the word ‘friend,’ Carton said. “On Facebook, they’re not your friends in the traditional sense; they’re your acquaintances.” He noted that he’s still waiting for someone to come up with a shorter version of “www.” Eastham wants someone to create a word to describe a person you’re introduced to via email. For now, she’s come up with her own word: “Equaintance. Keeping Current Some people may feel left behind by all this. If you’re a lawyer grappling with the new geek speak, you may need to use up court time to have terms such as Rickrolling explained to you. And yes, some of us despair at how use of this informal medium can lead to an equally casual attitude to grammar. But the truth is that social media is great for word nerds. It provides a rich playground for experimenting with, developing, and subverting language. It can also be a great way keep up with these changes. Pay attention to discussions in your social networks and you can spot emerging new words, new uses of words – and maybe even coin one yourself. Increases awareness of mistakes, Helps prevent them Instead of looking at social media sites as platforms for making mistakes, the panelists said, look at them as platforms for catching mistakes. Ungerleider said that when Fast Company readers see errors, they often point them out via social media. “Twitter has become the arbiter of language for us,” he said. “If we have a misspelling, people will let us know.” Having an audience, particularly a vocal one, helps. Knowing your tweet, Face book post or Instagram caption is potentially going to reach thousands of people can be a good incentive to proofread your social media posts. The fact that tweets can spread so quickly (even if you’ve deleted them) is another good reason to proofread them. Differentiates writers

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If your audience writes sloppily on social media sites, that’s not an excuse to start doing the same. Instead, think of it as an opportunity to differentiate yourself by writing well. You can also differentiate yourself by advancing the conversation on social networks. I was reminded of this when the panelists shared a quote by Peter Lunenfeld, a digital media critic and theorist. “The growth of blogs, Twitter and Face book considered in tandem with Tumbler and other social softwares that enable posting and tagging accounts creates an environment of continuous partial production.” Journalists can turn that partial production (strings of tweets, Face book posts, etc.) into a full production — a story, a project, an interactive — that offers the analysis and context you can’t find in a 140-character tweet. Spotlights Short Writing Social media shows us the value of short storytelling. With Vine videos, we have just six seconds to get a message across. Similarly, Twitter’s 140-character limit forces us to make every word count. The site is a constant reminder that writing short and well isn’t easy. “Shorter is better — if you can do it well,” Marie told the SXSW crowd. “It takes some level of skill.” Audience member Claire Willett responded “that’s a biiiiiiiig if.” There are some journalists who do an especially good job writing short on Twitter – including Xeni Jardin (@Xeni), Frank Bruni (@FrankBruni) and Joanna Smith (@SmithJoanna). Reminds us that change is constant The panelists said people’s concerns about digital media reflect concerns from the past. “Is technology taking us back to the future?” Marie asked. She shared a quote from new media research developer Paulien Dresscher: “Just as Socrates was concerned that the invention of writing would make people forgetful, people today are worried about the degree to which we are permanently shaped by digital technologies.” Language is always evolving, and technology is a healthy part of that evolution. In some ways, technology has taken us full circle. “When we first began to write things and moved away from oral culture, it changed the way things worked,” Carton said. “Now we’re moving to a post-printed era. If you look at the characteristics of social media … it’s much more like oral culture than written culture” because it’s so conversational. But many points have been furnished by many critics who think social media is killing English language. On a debate organized by http://www.debate.org/ we see 71 % of users say that social media is diluting the language. Some of their points are “Social media is diluting language and producing a generation that can't spell or use proper grammar. “I have had occasion to read and/or correct written work from this social media and texting generation. In general, their spelling and grammar are abysmal. They are so used to Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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using abbreviated word forms and acronyms that many of them have either forgotten or cannot comprehend the proper usage and spelling of many common words!” “As a high-school student I hear students and encounter students who speak as though they are texting or tweeting on a daily basis. When tweeting, instant messaging, or posting a status we rarely or never check our grammar or spelling. This may not be this biggest deal since its only a social media website or you may just be talking to your friends, when we go in to the real world or even submit essays and assignments in high school we will be in the habit of not checking or worrying about grammar and spelling, some incorrect spelling may not come across as wrong to us because that's the way we see words spelt so often on the internet and social media sites.” - Katie 65 There are so many people who think like Katie or the previous anonymous user. We cannot deny the reality of the overlapping of the texting language with that of our daily life. Let us see and examine the impact of this new language on our real world. The Impact of this on speech in the real world Language is an evolving thing. It’s naive to think that the language of social media isn’t having an effect on the way we use English in day-to-day life. It’s more appropriate to consider just how much of an effect it’s having on the way we communicate. A whole host of words originating from social media and the wider Internet have become so commonplace that they’ve now slipped into popular usage, and we don’t even realize it. Just a few interesting words that have their origins in technology are blogosphere (the collective word for personal websites called blogs), troll (someone who creates conflict online by starting arguments or upsetting people) and buzzword (a word or phrase that is fashionable at a particular time or in a particular context). Even some acronyms have made the transition into everyday speech as words, ‘lol’ for example. Another curious phenomenon we’ve seen in recent years is the re-appropriation of existing words and words based on brands to refer primarily to their social media context. Reappropriation is the cultural process by which a group claims words that were previously used in a certain way and gives them a new meaning. In this way the people who engage with social media are quite literally creating new words and giving new meanings to existing words. ‘Friended’ and ‘unfriended’ are two examples of words that have been given a new meaning due to their usage online. The word ‘friend’ and ‘befriend’ is from Old English originating in the 13th Century, but it has been given an entirely new meaning thanks to Face book (the process of adding or removing someone from your circle of friends). ‘Like’ and ‘viral’ are other popular examples of words that have had their meaning re-appropriated by social media. There are even instances of online brands becoming so powerful that words have crept into the English language based on them. ‘Google’ is the world’s leading search engine and it has become so universal in its usage that the phrase ‘Google it’ has virtually replaced the phrase ‘search for it’ in common speech. There are examples of this lifted directly from social media too; ‘tweet it’ refers to writing a message using Twitter, but has essentially come to mean ‘share it’. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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So, has social media changed the way we speak and write English? Yes, undeniably. Just think, ten years ago, if someone you’d just met asked you to “be their friend” or “Instagram” a photo of their lunch you’d have scratched your head and wondered if in fact they were feeling alright. Conclusion Debate may go on, and I think, will go on and the communication through social media will also go increasing. The impact of social media is so high on language that it has made an English of its own. If we look at the sites, http://englishforsocialmedia.com/ http://connectlanguage.com/our-programs/social-media-english-skills/ http://www.britishcouncil.in/english/learn-online/social-media-english-india http://alphacollege.com/english-for-social-media-marketing/ We find, to our surprise, that they are giving online coaching on “social media English” not the British or American or Indian or Australian variety of the English language. Thus we may perhaps come to the conclusion that the impact of social media on English language is that it has made a totally new dialect of English, which we can call “Social Media English”. References http://www.englishtown.com/blog/has-social-media-changed-the-way-we-speak-and-writeenglish/ http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2014/06/social-media-changing-language/ http://www.debate.org/opinions/is-social-media-diluting-the-english-language http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/top-stories/206598/5-ways-that-social-media-benefitswriting-the-english-language/ http://www.clickz.com/clickz/column/2326906/how-social-media-is-changing-languageusage-and-what-marketers-need-to-know-about-it http://www.castleford.com.au/blog/2013/how-social-media-has-shaped-the-english-language http://www.studymode.com/essays/Impact-Of-Social-Network-On-The-951874.html http://www.marketingprofs.com/articles/2012/8889/how-social-media-is-changing-theenglish-language-and-why-it-matters-to-marketers http://englishforsocialmedia.com/ http://blogs.imediaconnection.com/blog/2012/08/28/omg-the-impact-of-social-media-on-theenglish-language/ http://wearesocialpeople.com/the-demise-of-the-english-language-in-140-characters-or-less/ http://www.rediff.com/news/report/make-english-not-hindi-official-language-on-socialmedia-jaya-to-pm/20140620.htm http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/the-language-of-social-media-philipseargeant/?K=9781137029300 http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1932691/social-media http://www.ted.com/talks/john_mcwhorter_txtng_is_killing_language_jk http://connectlanguage.com/our-programs/social-media-english-skills/ http://www.britishcouncil.in/english/learn-online/social-media-english-india http://alphacollege.com/english-for-social-media-marketing/ http://www.businessinsider.in/A-Global-Social-Media-Census-The-Worlds-Largest-SocialNetworks-And-Where-Their-UsersComeFrom/articleshow/2 Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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A Glimpse on Art and Architecture in Medieval India Mohan Shyam Bhaskar Assistant Professor, Union Christian Training College, Berhampur, West Bengal, E-mail: mohanshyam2016@gmail.com Introduction Art in medieval India is the final and inevitable development of the maturity of Gupta art. The Hindu sculptures, paintings and architectures are the most important works of medieval art in India. In the north the invasion of the Delhi sultanate and the Mughals brought in the indo Islamic art which is an important movement in the history of medieval art in India. The paintings of the Rajput school of art are of great significance during this era. The architecture of the medieval period is regarded from its metaphysical aspect, that is, as a kind of magic replica of some unseen region or sacred being; and that it was precisely this metaphysical factor that determined the plan and elevation, rather than any aesthetic or functional consideration. During the early thirteenth century, the Delhi Sultanates invaded the most of northern India. The Delhi sultanates included the Mamluk dynasty (1206-90), the Khilji dynasty (1290-1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413), the Sayyid dynasty (1414-51) and the Lodhi dynasty (1451-1526). New techniques of art and architecture were introduced by them which were soon absorbed by the existing set up. There were many features in the Indian style of art which were similar to that of the foreign architectures for example both mosques and temples had open courtyards. This fact made the adaptation easier. In the art arid architecture of this period a b} end of Indian and foreign style was observed. The dome and the pointed arch were pioneered by the sultanates of Delhi which were considered as significant enhancing structure of the Islarnic buildings. These exclusive styles were gradually incorporated in other structures as well. The local Indian craftsmen were trained in this Persian style of art which they used to adorn the structure. The Indian craftsmen incorporated their own thoughts which resulted in the fact that conventional Hindu patterns like the lotus found their way into Islamic structures. The slave and the Khilji dynasty were the early dynasties of the sultanate period. They fashioned some elegantly planned structures, with fine works of art ornamenting them. Art and architecture was less adorned and more uncomplicated and sober during the reign of the Tughlaq whereas the Sayyids and the Lodhis incorporated more prolific style of art and introduced the idea of double dome. This innovative type of ornamentation was highly influenced by the Persian style. Art in terra cotta was also in vogue during this epoch. This period was marked with great experimentation done in the fields of art by the Indian artists. They amalgamated the Indian techniques with the new ideas of the foreigners which resulted in the formation of a coherent whole. The Delhi sultanates were absorbed by the Mughals who invaded India in the year 1526. The Mughals brought in the Indo- Islamic and Persian blend of art and architecture which included the features of Islamic art and architect ture which had been introduced in India by the sultanates of Delhi. Medieval art in India reached its zenith during the reign of the Mughals. Humayun's tomb at Delhi embodies a marvelous landmark in the expansion and sophistication of the Mughal style. But it was under the rule of Akbar that art attained its highest peak. The huge Agra fort was a major architectural production during Akbar. The establishment of the capital city of Fatehpur Sikri and the huge fortification of the Red fort are among the others architectural magnificence during this era. The sand stones architectures of Akbar were replaced by marble masterpieces by his successors. The Taj Mahal built by Shah Jahan is a lavish marble architecture. The Mughals were great patrons of art and their intellectual competence and artistic view was articulated in the most sophisticated manner. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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With the Muslim invasion, Sufism gained an entry in the Indian panorama. The art and architecture of the Rajputs holds a special position in the history of medieval art. The Rajputs were connoisseur of art and architecture which is reflected in the temples, forts and palaces built by them. The later Rajput period included the temple architecture of Orissa, Khajuraho, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and the temples of the Pallava and the Hoysalas in the south. The Khajuraho temples constructed by the Chandela rulers belong to the Vaishnava, Shaiva and the Jain sects. The temples are built in well grained sand stone and are put up on a high platform terrace. The temples have a covered entrance, a hall, a vestibule and a sanctorum. The temple of Vijayanagar at Hampi is an important medieval architecture of India. Architecture reached an elevated level of artistic excellence in the 11th and 12th century AD during the rule of the Chalukyas. It is witnessed in the architecture of the Jain temples of Gujarat. The Dilwara Jain temple at Mount Abu in Rajasthan is constructed in white marbles and is set up on a high platform with a compartment preserving a deity surrounded by a walled patio. There are other shrines around the courtyard which has images of Jain Tirthankaras. The oldest palaces of the Rajputs are found in Chittor and Gwalior which dates from the mid fifteenth century. The Man mandir of Gwalior is enhanced in brilliant blue tiles. The skill and maturity of the Rajput style are evident in the palaces of Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Udaipur. The buildings of the vast equipped city of Jaisalmer are constructed with yellow brown stone and the city of Bikaner is done in rich pink sand stone. The pink city of Jaipur marks the final phase of Rajput architecture. The town planning represents an intermingling of eastern and western ideas. The City Palace is at the hub of the walled city and is an impressive fusion of Rajput and Mughal architectural techniques. The medieval painting is the work of the Rajput schools. Rajput painting is the work of artists attached to the princely courts in Rajasthan, CentralIndia, and the Himalayan foothills of the Punjab from about the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. It is a style of painting that is apart in subjectmatter and conception from the exactly contemporary work of the artists attached to the courts of the Mughals. Rajput painting always remained entirely traditional in its illustration of the Indian epics, romantic Vaishnava literature, and musical modes. The development of the Rajput school of painting is the pictorial counterpart of the vernacular literature of Hindustan. The Rajput miniatures are derived from earlier classic styles. In this regard Rajput art might be presented as a merging of folk art with hieratic and classic traditions. The Rajput paintings are in a sense the product of the development of popular Vaishnavism centered particularly on the devotion to Lord Rama and Lord Krishna who typified the worship of Vishnu and Shiva in their more accessible and loving aspects rather than in the hieratic form in which they were venerated according to Vedic ritual. The rise of popular Vaishnavism coincides with the renaissance of Hindu literature and the beginnings of Rajput painting in the late sixteenth century. Rajput paintings are usually on a small scale, although many of them are very obviously reductions of themes originally employed in mural compositions. In India art in the medieval period witnesses a wide range of development and progress. The architecture and sculpture of this era is marked with indo Islamic style and also the continuation of the native art and architecture. Art and Architecture of Delhi Sultanate Art and architecture of Delhi Sultanate was the period when the Delhi Sultanate flourished in India. This period brought with it new styles of architecture and art to India which were quickly absorbed into the set up present previously. There are reasons for events to move in this direction. The new ideas and the existing Indian styles had several common features, thus enabling them to become accustomed to one another. Both mosque and temple possess large Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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open courtyards and several other temples were converted into mosques by some of the foreign invaders, which formed a mixture of both Indian and foreign styles. The Delhi Sultanate brought two new architectural ideas, the pointed arch and the dome. The dome forms the major decorative component in Islamic buildings, and soon the same was introduced in several other structures. The true or pointed arch used during this period, was totally dissimilar to that of the arches which were being constructed within the country before. The primitive Indian style of making arches was to first construct two pillars and then the same would be cut at interval to hold 'plug in' projections. There would also be a series of squares which would step by step decrease in size forming an arch. The new artisans brought in the true arch. This was accomplished by forming the middle stone a key stone and to other stones allocates the load to the two pillars. The idea of the dome was also newly introduced. This was slowly perfected and one of the striking examples is the dome of the famous Taj Mahal in Agra. The dome at first started out in the form of a conical dome in the Mehrauli region in Delhi and finally developed the final bulbous onion shape on the Taj Mahal. The dome effect was attained by an interesting process. At first, a square base was constructed and then at changing angles more squares adds up to the base. It thus creates a rough dome effect which was plastered in order to form it fully round and after that the squares were removed. Concrete was also used abundantly by opening up new opportunity. Concrete helped the builders to construct larger and massive structures stretching over a vast area. The local craftsmen of India were soon given training on Persian styles of art which they utilized to decorate the structures. The artisans also at times put in some of their own ideas, and soon the Hindu traditional motifs like the lotus were introduced into the Islamic buildings. Several other instances like the Islamic buildings utilized more advanced pointed arch, they also adapted for the purpose of decoration a variant of the Hindu arch. The early period of the Sultanate, namely the Slave dynasty in India and the Khiliji dynasty formed a number of exquisitely designed structures, with delicate works of art adorning them. In the Tughlaq period, the temper was less decorative and more austere and simple. This is assigned in part to the Tughlaqs' religious ideas and the depleted state finances. The Lodis and the Sayyids who came after the Tughlaqs brought the more lavish styles with the Lodis bringing in the new concept of double dome. A new decorative style was also introduced by them, mainly borrowed from Persia, enameled tiles, with grey sandstone. Terra-cotta decorative work remained popular in the period. The period was marked with great experimentation, and a majority of the artists and engineers in India were eager to learn from the flood of new ideas entering the country at that time. The indigenous technique was retained by them and at the same time they also absorbed several new thoughts coming in their way. Thus, two different ideas mixed to form a coherent whole. Under the Delhi Sultanate major developments were made in music as Indian and Arab forms mixed with the traditions of Persia and Central Asia. This syncretism led to the formation of a new type of music in north India quite dissimilar to that of the traditional Indian music, which retained its hold in the south. Much of the credit for this synthesis can be attributed to Amir Khusrau, the poet whose fame gave prestige to the new music, and also to the interest of the Chishti Sufis. At the independent court of Jaipur, music received special attention. At Jaunpur the last Sharqi king, Sultan Husain, wasconsidered to be the founder of the Khiyal or romantic school of music, which went on to blossom under the Mughals. At Gwalior under Raja Man Singh the chief musician was a Muslim who systematized Indian music in the light of the changes it had undergone since the advent of the Muslims. Little is known about in the field of education and the detailed curriculum of the madrasas, but it appears that medicine was accorded high importance. The earliest surviving work, written in the year 1329, by Zia Muhammad, Mazmua-i-ziai, is based Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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on Arabic and Indian sources, and gives local equivalents of Arab medicines. Others followed with combinations of Arab, Greek and Indian works, bringing together the medical knowledge of three cultures. Very few literary works have survived from the period of the Sultanate. With the exception of a number of major pieces by poets like Amir Khusrau or Hasan, the only enduring works were those included in general histories, like the poems of Sangreza, the first poet of eminence born in India, or Ruhanfs poem of the conquest of Ranthambhor by Iltutmish. Perhaps the most important literary contribution during the Delhi Sultanate was in the field of history. Ancient Indian culture produced no historical literature, so surviving Muslim works are vital primary sources. These works are richly varied. While many glorify or exaggerate the role of their royal patrons, the basic historical facts are sound. The historian Baruni is particularly notable for his fascinating insights into the political philosophies of different monarchs and for his portrayal of individual personalities. With the collapse of the power of the Sultanate in the 15th century, the rise of the provincial kingdoms fostered the growth of regional languages. While Hindu rulers had patronized Sanskrit language as the language of religion and the Epics, Muslim rulers support the common languages of the people. Ironically, it was the Muslims who were responsible for the first translations of the Sanskrit Epics into the provincial languages. Art and Architecture of Mughal Art Art and Architecture of Mughal Art have been successful in creating huge aura among the art lovers. The splendour of Mughal art always appeals to the aesthetic spirit of all art enthusiasts. The subtlety of the finesse and the dazzle of the aura associated with the artistic achievements calls for a keen interest in the subject. Under the Mughals (1526-1858) India grew into a prolific centre of cultural cultivation, literary pursuit and architectural marvel, comparable to the Iran under the Safavids. A fundamental feature of Mughal art was manuscript-illumination. A note worthy example is Persian miniature painting. One of such painting shows a small figure of Akbar, holding a flower and carrying a sword by his side. The presence of the flower and the sword is very symbolic. Flower represents calmness and peace-loving attributes of Akbar, while the sword speaks for his royal origin, blue-blood and inherent bravery. These Mughul paintings were usually invested with rich imagery and profound meanings. During Humayun's rule, the intricate illustration of Amir Hamza, a fabulous narrative produced 1400 paintings on cloth were conducted by expert Persian painters. Building style flourished under the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th to the 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India, where Persian and Indian provincial styles were fused to produce works of great refinement. White marble and red sandstone were favoured material. The mausoleum built to commemorate Humayun was probably the first great Mughal architecture. The tomb is laid down in a garden with octagonal chambers linked to an exquisite archway and with kiosks, cupolas and pinnacles affixed to it. The eminent Persian architect, Mirza Miyak Ghiyas, gave shape to it. The use of double dome, and archway inside a rectangular fronton (arena), and park like surroundings are typical of the Shah Jahan period, when Mughal design reached its zenith. Art and Architecture of Mughal Empire. The Fatehpur Sikhri, built in 1571, is a wonderful manifestation of a beautiful blend of Christain, Hindu, Persian, Buddhist and Jain architectural influences, besides being an Islamic artistry. The building reflects Akbar's design of making it a House of Worship, for the syncretise religion "Din-i -illahi". Art and Architecture of Mughal Empire The Panch Mahal, the tallest tower in the premises of the Mughal Palace, and the Diwan-i-Khas are elegant architectural constructions. Akbar promoted the writings of literary figures like Abul Fazl composing informative texts like AinContemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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I-Akbari and Akbarnama. The "Lilabati", an enlightening work on mathematics by Faizi, casts light on the Mughals" in depth knowledge of the discipline. Even the "Memoirs" support the common languages of the people. Ironically, it was the Muslims who were responsible for the first translations of the Sanskrit Epics into the provincial languages. Building style flourished under the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th to the 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India, where Persian and Indian provincial styles were fused to produce works of great refinement. White marble and red sandstone were favoured material. The mausoleum built to commemorate Humayun was probably the first great Mughal architecture. The tomb is laid down in a garden with octagonal chambers linked to an exquisite archway and with kiosks, cupolas and pinnacles affixed to it. The eminent Persian architect, Mirza Miyak Ghiyas, gave shape to it. The use of double dome, and archway inside a rectangular fronton (arena), and park like surroundings are typical of the Shah Jahan period, when Mughal design reached its zenith. The Fatehpur Sikhri, built in 1571, is a wonderful manifestation of a beautiful blend of Christain, Hindu, Persian, Buddhist and Jain architectural influences, besides being an Islamic artistry. The building reflects Akbar's design of making it a House of Worship, for the syncretic religion "Din-i -illahi". Art and Architecture of Mughal Empire The Panch Mahal, the tallest tower in the premises of the Mughal Palace, and the Diwan-i-Khas are elegant architectural constructions. Akbar promoted the writings of literary figures like Abul Fazl composing informative texts like Ain-I-Akbari and Akbarnama. The "Lilabati", an enlightening work on mathematics by Faizi, casts light on the Mughals" in depth knowledge of the discipline. Even the "Memoirs" simply a fortified palace, but an entire walled city, built as the new Mughal capital. It was constructed in the present spot of Old Delhi, the capital of many earlier Islamic dynasties in India North of the older Mughal nucleus of Delhi, the city was built on a bluff, overlooking the Yamuna river next to a fortified hillock, known during Jahangir's time as Nurgarh. As early as 1637, Shah Jahan had lamented that Agra and Lahore provided inadequate space for the proper observance of court ceremony and processions. Two years later, in 1639, and at an auspiciously chosen moment, the foundation of Shahjahanabad was commenced. The city and palace plans were designed by Ustad Hamid and Ustad Ahmad, neither of whom lived to see the city's completion. Ghairat Khan, governor of Delhi, was appointed supervisor to the newly built city. Later, Makramat Khan superseded Ghairat Khan and it was under him that the bulk of the project was completed in 1648. When the city was finally completed to a full circle, nothing in it seemed inadequate, incomplete, ungainly or awkward in its panoramic or close-up view. Indeed, architecture of Shahjahanabad was so perfect and idyllic in its perfection, that it still stands with all that grandeur and magnificence, however, with contemporary touches. Yet, none is as such interested of the contemporary touches, but with that erstwhile Shahjahanabad's architecture, once contrived under Shah Jahan. As with most of his other architectural projects, Shah Jahan was actively involved in Shahjahanabad's architecture and its maturations. In fact, Shah Jahan had played a role not only in the approval of the design, but also in the on-going construction. The emperor several times used to pay visits to the site, ordering suitable changes in the plans and rewarding the workers for their progress. While visiting the site of the still ongoing architecture of Shahjahanabad in 1647, the emperor is known to have ordered the special fortress's completion within the following year. Thus two additional architects, Aqil Khan and Aqa Yusuf, were brought in to assist Makramat Khan. The most distinctive and distinguishing features from the architecture of Shahjahanabad that is still visible in its intact format and that too, always to one's admiration are the walls and gates of the oft repeated Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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'walled city'. Architecturally, Shahjanahabad is approximately formed like a quarter circle, with the historic and massive Red Fort as the focal point. The old city was surrounded by a wall enclosing approximately 1500 acres, with several gates, comprising: Nigambodh Gate North/East, leading to historic Nigambodh ghat on Yamuna River. Kashmiri Gate - North Mori Gate - North Kabul i gate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; West Lahori gate â&#x20AC;&#x201C; West Ajmeri Gate - South East, leading to Ghaziuddin Khan's Madrassa and Connaught Place ; a concentring point in New Delhi. Turkman Gate - South East, nearby some pre-Shah jahan remains, which got enclosed within the walls, incorporating the tomb of Hazrat Shah Turkman Bayabani. Delhi Gate - South; leading to Feroz Shah Kotla cricket ground and what was then older habitation of Delhi. The surrounding walls, 12 feet wide and 26 feet tall, originally made from mud, were replaced by red sandstone in 1657. During the Mughal era, the gates were kept locked during nighttime. Those walls largely have disappeared since long, but most of the gates are still very much present. The township of Old Delhi is still identifiable in a perfect satellite image because of the concentration of houses. Ajmeri-Gate Shahjahanabad's most prized possession and distinctly visible from a distance, the Red Fort, can be majestically named as the dizzying architectural crest. The Red Fort was dedicated integrally to the architecture of Shahjahanabad in April, 1648. Its buildings, especially the Public Audience Hall (the historic Diwan-i-Am), where much of the celebration took place, was lavishly embellished with textiles embroidered with gold, silver and pearls. Huge sums of money, valuable bejewelled swords, elephants and other treasures were distributed to members of the royal household and the nobility; numerous, including Makramat Khan, the supervisor behind Shahjahanabad's masterpiece architecture, were awarded an increase in rank. This fortified palace, presently acknowledged as Delhi's Red Fort, is strangely and splendidly irregular in plan, but essentially rectangular in shape. The red sandstone walls, more than 3 km in circumference, enclose almost 125 acres of land. The fort was situated on Shahjahanabad"s eastern edge, dominating the newly constructed city. On the fort's east, just beyond its walls, lay the Yamuna river; beyond the walls on its remaining three sides, the nobles, high-ranking ladies and members of the royal family provided markets, mosques and gardens - making architecture of Shahjahanabad just as heavenly as could have been possible in such times of mid-17th century. Architecturally, Shahjahanabad was divided into various sectors. In them, leading court figures built mansions containing, like the imperial palace, residential buildings, as well as all units of production needed to serve the extensive household inside. Even Dara Shukoh, the heir apparent, is known to have resided along the riverbank outside the palace. Enormous bazaars further had divided the city of Shahjahanabad, a Mughal architectural chef-d'oeuvre. One of the most important was situated due west of the Red Fort's Lahore Gate, corresponding to an area presently acknowledged as Chandni Chowk. Texts indicate that the Chandni Chowk was framed of uniform pillared galleries on either side of a central canal. It was the prerogative of the leading court ladies to build in and around these markets. Just north of this market, Jahan Ara Begum, Shah Jahan's eldest and most beloved daughter, had constructed a garden recognised as Sahibabad, used as a serai for the richest merchants. Along the Chandni Chowk, not far from the city's Lahore gate, Fatehpuri Begum, probably Shah Jahan's third wife had erected a mosque similar to Jahan Ara's Jami mosque in Agra. This huge structure, dominating the area, was completed about the same time as most of the palace, approximately 1650. Nearby Sirhindi Begum, an influential woman of the court had provided a smaller red sandstone mosque to the completion of architecture of Shahjahanabad, quite unimaginable in contemporary times. Akbarabadi Mahal, usually identified as Shah Jahan's first wife, is known have provided a serai and an impressive mosque in a second major market in the south part of Shahjahanabad. Such meticulous architecture of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Shahjahanabad by the emperor himself or by the royal household under Shah Jahan's patronage, suggests that the uniformity in design for imperially sponsored mosques was intentional, signalling power throughout the city of Shahjahanabad. Architecture of Shahjahanabad, as can be quite evident now, was quite a motleyed one, very much resembling an Oriental sense of bazaar, fortresses and walled lofty edifices, also including mosques. The two mosques Shah Jahan had provided for his own Shahjahanabad, similar yet even grander than those of the court ladies, further underscores the notion of a uniform style to represent imperial presence. One was an Idgah, completed in 1655. It was located outside the city walls, where adequate land was available for the mammoth crowd that gathered for the annual celebration of the Id prayers. In present times, it is acknowledged as the Purani Idgah (Old Idgah), even though little remains of its once impressive red sandstone facade. The second and more substantial and monumental mosque was the Jami mosque of Shahjahanabad, located inside the city, a short distance from the Red Fort. It is today still considered the legendary Jama Masjid of Old Delhi. The Jama Masjid, the crowning glory of architecture of Shahjahanabad after Red Fort, is approached by steep high stairs, harking those leading to the Fatehpur Sikri mosque of same name. Its interior court and facade, too, owe considerable debt to the great mosque in Fatehpur Sikri indeed, most often regarded to have been inspired from Akbaf s masterwork by his grandchild. The prayer chamber, faced with red sandstone and extensive white marble trim, is marked by multiple entrance arches. Three bulbous marble domes crown the Jama Masjid and towering minarets flank the south and northeast ends, still making one go awed with its stupefying enormity, yet making one comprehend the limitation of one such Mughal Shah Jahan and his 'baby' â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the historic and legendary architecture of Shahjahanabad. Well-manicured gardens were being lent in the peripheries which further heightened the architectural excellence of Shahjahanabad. Another outstanding garden was provided north of the walled city by Raushan Ara, Shah Jahan's youngest daughter. As such, architecture of Shahjahanabad had possessed much touch of the fair sex under Islamic rules. Concurrent with prolific building activity in the new city about 1650, Raushar Ara had commenced this garden and her on tomb. Though humble, but still inspiring in every detailed effort; the surrounding flat-roofed galleries bear cusped arches supported on bulbous baluster columns, generally an imperial prerogative during Shah Jahan's reign. Paradoxically, however, her simple cenotaph remains open to the air, indicative of her role as God's mere slave. References: Hillenbrand, R. (2005) Image and meaning in Islamic Art, Altajir Trust, UK. Jagadish N.S. (1991) Thoughts on trends of Cultural contacts in Medieval India, Naya Prokash, New Delhi. Kakar, S and Katharina, K (2007) The Indians: Portrait of a people, Penguin Books, New Delhi. Mahammuda, M. (2007) The Foundations of the composite culture in India, Aakar Books, New Delhi. Mehata, J.L. (1983) Advanced Study in the History of Medeival India, Volume III: Medieval Indian Society and Culture: Sterling Publishers PVT. Ltd. New Delhi. Paddayya, K. (2002) Ancient Indian Thought: A Component of Liberal Education, University News, 39(53), pp 3-9.

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A Comparative Study on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Sonitpur District of Assam Mr. Jadab Dutta Research Scholar, Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar791112, Arunachal Pradesh (India), E-mail Id: jadabdutta.12@gmail.com & Mr. Nitul Gogoi Research Scholar, Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar791112, Arunachal Pradesh (India) & Prof. J.C Soni Professor, Department of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Itanagar-791112, Arunachal Pradesh (India) ABSTRACT The present study investigated the Academic Achievement of secondary school students in Sonitpur district of Assam. This study is conducted on a sample of 500 Students comprising of 250 boys and 250 girls selected randomly from 16 Government and Private secondary schools of Sonitpur district of Assam. The descriptive survey method is used for data collection. The findings of the study reported that there was no significant difference in Academic Achievement of government and private school students; no significant mean difference in the Academic Achievement of school boys and girls; and there was no significant mean difference between the Academic Achievement of rural and urban secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

Keywords: Academic Achievement and Secondary School Students. Introduction Education is regarded as the potential instrument of national development. A modern society cannot achieve its aim of economic growth, technical development and cultural advancement without fully harnessing the talents of its citizens. Educationists thus strive to develop fully the intellectual potential of the students and make efforts to see that their potentialities are fully recognised and channelized for the benefit of the individual and that of the society. So, education is the process of bringing out the talents and potentialities of an individual and to unfold the natural abilities and interest before the society. It proceeds from birth to death and schools exert greater influence in educating the child and promoting academic achievement. Therefore, the level of academic achievement of a child at any stage depends on the extent to which its natural potentialities have developed. Academic achievement is the core of the entire educational growth .It is regarded as an important goal of education. Academic achievement is the outcome of the instruction provided to the children in schools which is determined by the grades, or marks secured by the students in the examination. It generally indicates the learning outcomes of pupil which requires a series of planned and organised experiences. Academic achievement is the prime and perennial responsibility of a school or any other educational institution established by the society to promote whole scholastic growth and development of a child. Academic achievement plays a very significant role in the attainment of the harmonious development of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the child. The prediction of academic achievement has assumed enormous importance to its practical view. In our society, academic achievement is considered as a key criterion to judge ones total potentialities and capacities. It forms the main basis of admission and promotion in a class. It is also important for obtaining a degree or getting a job. Therefore it is more pressing for the individuals/students to have high academic achievement. For a student, value of academic achievement is important not only for higher education on one hand and finding valuable job on the other, but also for bringing personal satisfaction and social recognition. Today, good academic achievement is becoming more and more pressing for the individual to have. Individual differences in abilities of achievements are reflected in the academic progress of the students even though all students are exposed to a similar educational facilities, environment, aspiration and even intelligence in the school environment. Each student may vary in respect of their academic achievements by showing different levels of competence. Such variations may be attributed to a host of factors innate as well as environmental. Further, an individual may also vary in achievement with passage of time. That is why we sometimes find students who do not maintain consistency in their academic achievement as they progress. Many a times we often find students who pass the examination, yet they fail to achieve as much as they can in terms of their abilities. This has drawn the attention of the researchers who have attempted to unravel the complex determinants of academic achievement. They have indicated that studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x; academic achievement depends to a large extent on their adjustment. These adjustment patterns determine the quality and efficiency of academic striving. Thus, the study of academic achievement of students has assumed a lot of significance in this modern educational system as the efficiency and deficiency of a student is chiefly determined by the quality of his academic achievement. The role of academic achievement in the educational system in particular and in the development of the nations in general is assuming greater proportion. So, there are countless numbers of studies that have been undertaken which either focused exclusively on academic achievement or investigated academic achievement in relation to other cognitive, social and personal factors. Most of these studies have sought to determine factors that enhance academic achievement. The implications of these relationships in education are apparent since achievement in skill, concepts, and content are the acknowledged goals of the educational process. Therefore, promotion of academic achievement is one of the important aims of an educational system. In this rapidly changing world, with the growing advancement in science and technology academic achievement has become so vital that every parent today sets high goals to educate the child. Hence, the entire effort of education is towards improving the academic performance of the pupils. The problem of predicting high school success has probably received more public attention than any other single problem in education. Review of Related Studies Wongoo (1991) conducted a study to find out whether the students from government and private schools differ significantly so far as their socio-economic status and academic achievement was concerned and found that the government and private school students from highly advanced and normal schools differed significantly so far as their socioeconomic status was concerned. Discerned significant difference on academic achievement was found between the students from government and private, highly advanced Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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and advanced schools; academic achievement of students from normal government and normal private schools did not differ significantly; relationship between socioeconomic status and academic achievement when computed on total sample (N =180) was statistically significant. Rangappa (1992) studied self-concept and reading ability in relation to achievement in mathematics of 7th class students with the objective to identify whether boys and girls, rural and urban students differ in their achievement by taking a sample of 1000 students with mean age of 12.5 years and found that the students studying in urban school performed better in mathematics than the students studying in rural school; self- concept, location, gender and reading ability affected the achievement of students in Mathematics. Bookman (1996) studied academic adjustment in relation to scholastic achievement of secondary school pupils by taking a sample of 545 senior secondary school students and found that academic adjustment was significantly related to the scholastic performance; the scholastic performance and locality were unrelated; there was no difference among the subjects from urban, semi-urban and rural localities with regard to scholastic performance. Koreswara et al. (1998) studied reading achievement in relation to demographic variable with the objective to study the relationship between gender and reading achievement among high school students by taking a sample of 1296 students of 8th, 9th and 10th grade and found that girls were better than boys in reading achievement; class as a variable affected reading achievement of students of 10th class were far better in achievement than 8th and 9th class; students of residential schools performed better than day scholar students in rural and urban area; region and locality had no significant influence on reading achievement of high school students. Suneetha et al. (2001) studied age and gender differences as factors affecting academic achievement and revealed that gender was the more important variable than intelligence quotient in deciding high academic performance, girls were among top ranking students; girls were better in interaction and concentration while boys were better than girls in language, reasoning and drilling dimension. Adepoju (2002) studied locational factors, private cost and academic performance of secondary school students and found that significant difference existed in the academic performance of students in urban and rural secondary schools particularly in English language; the locational factors did not contribute significantly to the academic performance in English language and Mathematics. Another Study conducted on 2002 (Adepoju) the motivational variables and academic performance of urban and rural secondary school students with the objective to examine the degree of relationship among motivational variables and academic performance of students in secondary school certificate examination by taking 100 secondary schools and 1000 senior secondary school students and found that there was an enhanced relationship of each of the motivational variables in respect to academic performance with the provision of learning materials as the most predictor variable, followed by employment of private teachers and conducive school environment respectively. Pandey et al. (2005) studied relationship between socio economic status and academic achievement of adolescents and found significant relationship between academic achievement and socio economic status; significant difference between academic Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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achievement of adolescents studying in different types of school depending upon the socio economic status of parents. Bhuvaneswari et al. (2004) studied the relationship between spatial ability and achievement in Science and Mathematics among high school children by taking a sample of 320 students and found that there was no significant difference in the category of gender and type of school for achievement; there was a significant relationship between spatial ability and achievement in Science and Mathematics. Palta, Singh (2008) studied relationship among creativity, intelligence and achievement scores of secondary school students with the objective to study the correlation between creativity and intelligence; intelligence and science achievement; intelligence and scholastic achievement by taking a sample of 180 subjects of IX class from Odia medium secondary school and found that there was significant positive correlation among creativity and science achievement, creativity and scholastic achievement, intelligence and science achievement as well as intelligence and scholastic achievement. Yomgam, Bige (2009) undertook a study to find out the academic achievement of secondary students in Arunachal Pradesh, and found that there was a wide gap among the different categories of students viz., Male, Female, Tribal and Non-tribal in their academic achievement in the subject namely, English, Hindi, Mathematics, Science and Social studies. Bijoy, Soni and Jadab (2014) conducted a study on “Evaluation of Social Science Curriculum at Elementary Stage in Assam”. This study is conducted on a sample of 550 students and teachers selected from 20 schools from urban and rural settings of Lakhimpur District. The sample is comprised of 400 students taking 200 each from rural and urban with 100 each belonging to males and females from both the areas respectively. Similarly, teacher’s sample of 150 was consisted of 75 each from rural and urban with 50 and 25 males and females respectively from rural and urban areas. The descriptive survey method was used for data collection using questionnaire for Evaluation of Social Science Curriculum (QESSC) and Attitude Inventory Towards Evaluation of Social Science Curriculum (AITESSC). On the basis of the analysis of the responses of the whole sample, 94% students and 97% teachers reported that social science helps the learners to adjust with the social and physical environment. It also found that Social science is the applied branch of social sciences introduced in the curriculum at school state with a view to developing proper attitudes, sensibilities and skills in future citizens. Suresh, Soni and Jadab (2014) conducted a study on “A Study of Adjustment, Level of Aspiration, self-concept and Academic Achievement of Visually Handicapped School Children of Assam”. The data were collected from a sample of 400 visually handicapped children 200 boys and 200 girls who were studying in the classes VI to X (age 12 to 16 years) in six visually handicapped schools of lower and upper Assam selected by using simple random technique. The descriptive survey method was used for data collection using (i) Adjustment Inventory standardized by A.K.P Sinha and R.P.Singh; (ii) Self -Concept Inventory standardized by Raj Kumar Saraswat; (iii) Level of Educational Aspiration constructed by J.C.Soni and (iv) Academic Achievement from School Record. The study reported that the adjustment of visually handicapped boys and girls was found similar on overall adjustment. It also revealed that there existed no relationship between (a) adjustment and level of educational aspirations; (b) adjustment and self-concept and (c) adjustment and Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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academic achievement of visually handicapped children. In another study conducted by Suresh, Jadab and Soni (2015) found that on (i) The adjustment of visually handicapped boys and girls are found similar on overall adjustment; (ii) The results of the study further show that visually handicapped boys and girls do not differ significantly in respect of academic achievement; (iii) The study revealed that there exist no relationship between adjustment and academic achievement of visually handicapped children and (iv) The interaction between adjustment no impact on academic achievement. Jadab, Lakshinandan and Soni (2016) conducted a study on â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Comparative Study on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur District of Assamâ&#x20AC;?. This study is conducted on a sample of 500 Students comprising of 250 boys and 250 girls selected randomly from 16 Government and Private secondary schools of Sonitpur district of Assam. The descriptive survey method is used for data collection. The study clearly revealed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools as well as belonging to in urban and rural areas showed different significantly in respect of their science subject. However, the separate comparison of male and female of government students are not significant in science subjects. This study also clearly showed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools, rural and urban schools and male/female of rural and urban government students are found to differ in performance of dissimilar social science subjection. However, the separate comparison of male and female students of (a) male/female of rural secondary schools; (b) male/female of urban secondary schools; (c) rural male/female of government secondary schools; (d) urban male/female of government secondary schools; (e) male/female of private secondary schools; (f) rural male/female of private secondary schools and (g) urban male/female of private secondary school students are not significant on their social subject. This study also clearly showed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools, rural and urban secondary schools, male/female of rural secondary schools, male/female of rural and urban government schools, rural male/female of government schools, male and female of private secondary schools and urban male/female of private secondary school students' performance are dissimilar in whole subjects. However, the separate comparison of male and female students of (a) male female of urban schools; (b) urban male/female of government and as well as (c) rural male/female of private school studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance is similar level in whole subjects. Need of the study The present study has been designed to study the Academic Achievement of secondary school students in Lakhimpur district of Assam. Here, the Academic Achievement refers to Educational performances of students studying in schools. How far they are successful in acquiring knowledge, understanding, and skill in different subjects presented to them for study through curriculum is to be reflected in their Academic Achievement. This study will try to give a picture of the secondary students in class IX final examination by taking into account the marks obtained by them in science, social science and all subjects. The performance will be analysed qualitatively, and comparison of performance of males and females as well as their performance in urban and rural schools will be done. The present study seeks to investigate there was no significant difference in Academic Achievement of government and private school students; no significant mean difference in the Academic Achievement of school boys and girls; and there was no significant mean difference between

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the Academic Achievement of rural and urban secondary school students of Lakhimpur district of Assam. Statement of the Problem The problem of the present study has been stated as follows: â&#x20AC;&#x153;A Comparative Study on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Sonitpur District of Assamâ&#x20AC;? Objectives of the Study The study is designed with the following objectives: 1. To study the academic achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of government and private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. 2. To find out the difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to academic achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of Sonitpur district of Assam. 3. To compare the gender differences between: (a) rural (b) urban (c) government and (d) private schools in relation to academic achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Hypotheses of the Study The hypotheses are stated as under: 1. There is no significant mean difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of Sonitpur district of Assam. 2. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of rural/urban of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 3. There is no significant mean difference in Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of government and private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. 4. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of rural secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 5. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of urban secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 6. There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks).

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7. There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 8. There is no significant mean difference between male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 9. There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). 10. There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Methodology of the Study The Descriptive approach is used in the study. The present study is a comparative study on academic achievement of Secondary School Students in Sonitpur District of Assam. Keeping in view the nature of study, the survey method was found to be more suitable. Population of the Study: The population of the present study constituted all the students studying class IX in secondary schools of Sonitpur district of Assam. Sample of the Study: The sample is of small number of representative individuals from the population. This study is conducted on a sample of 500 Students (250 boys and 250 girls) selected randomly from 16 Government and Private secondary schools of Sonitpur district of Assam. Tool Used: In order to fulfill the objectives of the present study the following tool was used Academic Achievement Record. The tool is described in the following section: The Students Performance Record from the Schools As far as academic achievement of the students was concerned for the purpose of the present study, the investigator visited the selected schools and collected the school records of the selected students i.e. markâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s obtained by the students in the last annual examination, 2014 (i.e. class IX annual examination). Statistical Techniques Used; In this study various statistical measures such as Mean, SD and t-test were used for analysing data. Result and Discussion Collected data through above mentioned inventory were analyzed in terms of mean, standard deviation and t-test method. The results have been presented in the tableâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s hypothesis wise. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant mean difference between rural and urban secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of Sonitpur district of Assam.

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Table 1: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the rural and urban secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Rural Students

250

50.68

16.96

Urban students

250

50.08

18.02

t-value

Remarks

0.38

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both rural and urban students are 50.68 and 50.08 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a CR(t) value 0.38. This was found to be not significant. Hence, hypothesis 1 is accepted. This means that there is a no difference in performance science subject of rural and urban secondary students of Sonitpur district.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Rural Students

250

55.06

15.09

Urban students

250

53.54

17.55

t-value

Remarks

1.04

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural and urban students are 55.06 and 53.54 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=1.04) is less than the table value 1.96 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence, hypothesis 1 is accepted. This further means that rural and urban secondary school students have similar level of academic performance in social science subject.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Rural Students

250

314.27

104.72

Urban students

250

317.3

113.24

t-value

Remarks

0.31

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both rural and urban students are 314.27 and 317.3 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 0.31 is less than the table value 1.96 at 0.05% level of significance as the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the difference between the two means is not significant as there is a no academic performance difference between rural and urban secondary students of Sonitpur district in all subjects combined together. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant mean difference between rural/urban male and female of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 2: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the rural/urban male and female of government secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

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Science

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Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

186

45.19

14.88

Female

186

43.33

14.15

t-value

Remarks

1.23

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural/urban male and female of government students are 45.19 and 43.33 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=1.23) is less than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence, hypothesis 2 is accepted. This further means that rural/urban males and females of government secondary school students have similar level of academic performance in science subject.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

186

52.34

15.59

Female

186

48.79

16.44

t-value

Remarks

2.14

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural/urban male and female of government students are 52.34 and 48.79 respectively. The computed CR(t) between their mean difference is 2.14. Which is found significant at 0.05 level. Hence, hypothesis 2 is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in performance social science subject of rural/urban males and females of government secondary students of Sonitpur district.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

186

277.24

83.84

Female

186

276.61

88.25

t-value

Remarks

0.07

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural/urban male and female of government students are 272.24 and 276.61 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a t-value 0.07. This was found to be not significant. Hence, hypothesis 2 is accepted. This means that there is a no academic performance difference between in all subjects combined together of rural/urban males and females of government secondary students of Sonitpur district. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant mean difference in Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks) of government and private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Table 3: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the government and private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Science

Group

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Standard deviation

t-value

Remarks

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Government

372

44.26

14.53

Private

128

68.16

12.48

Highly Significant

17.84

It is found that the mean scores of both government and private students are 44.26 and 68.16 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a CR(t) value 17.84. This was found to be highly significant. Hence, hypothesis 3 is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in performance between science subject of government and private secondary students of Sonitpur district.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Government

372

50.57

16.09

Private

128

65.13

11.69

t-value

Remarks

10.95

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both government and private students are 50.57 and 65.13 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=10.95) is greater than the table value 1.96 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is highly significant. Hence, hypothesis 3 is rejected. This further means that government and private secondary school students have dissimilar level of performance in social science subject.

All subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Government

372

276.92

85.96

Private

128

428.72

88.24

t-value

Remarks

16.90

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of both government and private students are 276.92 and 428.72 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference these groups, it reported a CR (t) value of 16.90. This was found to be highly significant. Hence, hypothesis 3 is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in performance in all subjects combined together of both government and private students of Sonitpur district. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of rural secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 4: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the male and female of rural secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

47.03

16.26

Female

125

51.49

18.24

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t-value

Remarks

3.86

Highly Significant

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It is found that the mean scores of male and female of rural students are 47.03 and 51.49 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=3.86) is greater than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is highly significant. Hence, hypothesis 4 is rejected. This further means that males and females of rural secondary schools students have dissimilar level of performance in science subject.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

52.73

15.44

Female

125

55.38

18.63

t-value

Remarks

1.22

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of rural students are 52.73 and 55.38 respectively. The computed CR(t) between their mean difference is 1.22. Which is found not significant at 0.05 level. Hence, hypothesis 4 is accepted. This means that there is a no academic performance difference in social science subject of male and female of rural secondary students of Sonitpur district.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

289.06

91.17

Female

125

319.32

101.92

t-value

Remarks

2.47

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of rural students are 289.06 and 319.32 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 2.47 is greater than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance as the null hypothesis is rejected. This means that the difference between the two means is significant as there is a real difference in performance between male and female of rural secondary students of Sonitpur district in all subjects combined together. Hypothesis 5: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of urban secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 5: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the urban male and female secondary school students of Lakhimpur district of Assam. Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

54.33

16.93

Female

125

48.66

17.75

t-value

Remarks

2.59

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of urban students are 54.33 and 48.66 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a t-value 2.59. This was found to be significant. Hence, hypothesis is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in performance science subject of male and female of urban secondary students of Lakhimpur district. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Social Science

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Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

57.38

14.42

Female

125

51.69

16.25

t-value

Remarks

2.93

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of urban students are 57.38 and 51.69 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=2.93) is greater than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is significant. Hence, hypothesis is rejected. This further means that male and female of urban secondary school students have dissimilar level of performance in social science subject.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

125

339.48

111.48

Female

125

315.28

123.91

t-value

Remarks

1.62

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of urban students are 339.48 and 315.28 respectively. The computed t-value between their mean differences is 1.62 which are found not significant at 0.05 levels. Hence, the hypothesis is accepted. Therefore male and female of urban secondary school students have similar level of performance in all subjects combined together. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 6: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the rural male and female of government secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

40.95

13.36

Female

44.81

14.44

t-value

Remarks

1.89

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of government secondary school students are 40.95 and 44.81 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=1.89) is less than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence, hypothesis is accepted. This further means that rural males and females of government secondary school students have similar level of performance in science subject.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

49.47

15.66

Female

49.83

17.17

t-value

Remarks

0.15

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of government students are 49.47 and 49.83 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 0.15 is less than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance as the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the difference between the two means is very poor significant as there is a no academic performance difference between rural male and female of government secondary students of Sonitpur district in social science subject.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

262.74

85.76

Female

288.24

92.38

t-value

Remarks

1.95

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of government students are 262.74 and 288.24 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference these groups, it reported a CR (t) value of 1.95. This was found to be not significant. Hence, hypothesis 6 is accepted. This means that there is a no academic performance difference in all subjects combined together of male and female rural students of Sonitpur district. Hypothesis 7: There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of government secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 7: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the urban male and female of government secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

49.43

15.17

Female

41.85

13.78

t-value

Remarks

3.58

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of government students are 49.43 and 41.85 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=3.58) is greater than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is significant. Hence, hypothesis 7 is rejected. This further means that urban males and females of government secondary school students differ in performance level of science subject.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

55.22

15.05

Female

47.76

15.69

t-value

Remarks

3.29

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of government students are 55.22 and 47.76 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 3.29 is greater than the table value 1.97 at 0.05% level of significance as the null hypothesis is rejected. This means that the difference between the two means is highly significant as there is a real difference performance in between urban males and females of government secondary students of Sonitpur district in social science subject. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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All Subjects

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Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

291.74

79.72

Female

264.98

82.79

t-value

Remarks

3.07

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of government students are 291.74 and 264.98 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference these groups, it reported a CR (t) value of 3.07. This was found to be highly significant. Hence, hypothesis 7 is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in all subjectsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance of urban males and females of government students of Sonitpur district. Hypothesis 8: There is no significant mean difference between male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 8: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the male and female of private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

66.63

11.83

Female

69.70

12.99

t-value

Remarks

1.40

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of private students are 66.63 and 69.70 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a CR(t) value 1.40. This was found to be not significant. Hence, hypothesis 8 is accepted. This means that there is a no academic performance difference between science subject of male and female of private secondary students of Sonitpur district.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

62.94

10.09

Female

67.31

12.82

t-value

Remarks

2.14

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of private students are 62.94 and 67.31 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=2.14) is greater than the table value 1.98 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is significant. Hence, hypothesis 8 is rejected. This further means that male and female of private secondary school students do differ in performance level of social science subject.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

421.88

83.01

Female

435.56

93.33

t-value

Remarks

0.88

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of male and female of private students are 421.88 and 435.56 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 0.88 is less than the table value 1.98 at 0.05% Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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level of significance as the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the difference between the two means is not significant as there is a no difference between academic performance of male and female of private secondary students of Sonitpur district in all subjects combined together. Hypothesis 9: There is no significant mean difference between rural male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Table 9: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the rural male and female of private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam. Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

64.69

9.74

Female

70.94

13.67

t-value

Remarks

2.10

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of private students are 64.69 and 70.94 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a t-value 2.10. This was found to be significant. Hence hypothesis is rejected. This means that there is a real difference in science subject performance of rural male and female of private secondary students of Sonitpur district.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

62.19

10.07

Female

71.5

12.38

t-value

Remarks

3.30

Highly Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of private students are 62.19 and 71.5 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=3.30) is greater than the table value 2.00 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is highly significant. Hence, hypothesis is rejected. This further means that rural male and female of private secondary school students do differ in performance level of social science subject.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

365.53

57.51

Female

409.66

69.98

t-value

Remarks

2.76

Significant

It is found that the mean scores of rural male and female of private students are 365.53 and 409.66 respectively. The computed t-value between their mean differences is 2.76 which are found significant at 0.05 levels. Hence, the hypothesis is rejected. Therefore rural males and females of private secondary school students do differ in performance level of all subjects combined together. Hypothesis 10: There is no significant mean difference between urban male and female of private secondary school students in relation to Academic Achievement (Science, Social Science and All Subjects Total Marks). Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Table 10: Mean, Standard deviation and t-value of the urban male and female of private secondary school students of Sonitpur district of Assam.

Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

68.56

13.49

Female

68.47

12.37

t-value

Remarks

0.03

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of private students are 68.56 and 68.47respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value 0.03 is less than the table value 2.00 at 0.05% level of significance as the null hypothesis is accepted. This means that the difference between the two means is not significant as there is a no academic performance difference between urban male and female of private secondary students of Sonitpur district in science subject.

Social Science

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

63.69

10.21

Female

63.13

12.03

t-value

Remarks

0.20

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of private students are 63.69 and 63.13 respectively. When the t-test was applied to test the significance of the mean difference between these groups, it reported a CR(t) value 0.20 This was found to be not significant. Hence, hypothesis 10 is accepted. This means that there is a no difference in performance of social science subject in urban male and female of private secondary students of Sonitpur district.

All Subjects

Group

Mean

Standard deviation

Male

478.22

64.35

Female

461.47

106.87

t-value

Remarks

0.76

Not Significant

It is found that the mean scores of urban male and female of private students are 478.22 and 461.47 respectively. When the t-test was applied to compare the mean scores of both the groups, it was found that the calculated t-value (=0.76) is less than the table value 2.00 at 0.05% level of significance. This means that the mean difference is not significant. Hence, hypothesis 10 is accepted. This further means that urban male and female of private secondary school students do differ in performance level of all subjects. Conclusion The study clearly revealed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools as well as belonging to in males and females of rural secondary students, urban males/females of secondary students, urban males/females of government and rural males/females of private secondary students showed different significantly in respect of their performance in science subject. However, the separate comparison of rural and urban secondary students, rural/urban males and females of government students, rural males and females of government students, males/females of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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private and urban males/females of private students are not significant in academic performance of science subjects. This study also clearly showed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools, rural/urban males and females of government, males/females of urban secondary students, urban males/females of government, males and females of private and rural males/females of private students are found do differ in performance of social science subject. However, the separate comparison of male and female students of (a) rural and urban secondary schools; (b) male/female of rural secondary schools; (c) rural male/female of government secondary schools and (d) urban male/female of private secondary schools students are not significant on their academic performance in social subject. This study also clearly showed that in the whole sample the secondary school students studying in government and private schools, male/female of rural secondary schools, male/female of urban government schools and rural male/female of private schools students' performance are do differ in whole subjects combined together. However, the separate comparison of male and female students of (a) rural and urban secondary schools; (b) rural/ urban males and females of government (c) male/female of urban schools; (d) rural males/females of government; (e) males and females of private and as well as (f) urban males/females of private students’ performance is similar level in whole subjects combined together. Reference Encyclopaedia of Education (1996) for All Vol- II, The EPA 9th Summit, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi-2. Garrett, H.E., (1968), General Psychology, New Delhi, Eurasia Publication House, (Ind. reprint). Good, C. V. (ed.) (1973), Dictionary of Education, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co. Ins. Buch, M.B (ed) (1979) Second Survey of Research in Education, Baroda, Centre of Advanced Study in Education, M.S. University. Buch, M.B. (ed.) (1987) Third Survey of Research in Education, Baroda, Centre of Advanced Study in Education, M.S. University. Buch, M.B (ed.) (1991) Fourth Survey of Research in Education, Vol. I & II. New Delhi, NCERT. Buch, M.B (ed.) (2000) Fifth all India Educational Survey, Vol. I & II, New Delhi, NCERT. Suneetha, B. and Mayuri, K. (2002): “A Study on Age and Gender Differences on the Factors Affecting High Academic Achievement”, Journal of Community Guidance and Research, Vol. 18(2), 197-208, from Indian Educational Abstracts, Vol.2, No.2, July 2002, Abstract No.199, p.64. Talwar, Vibha (2006) The Impact of Anxiety, Frustration, Level of Aspiration and Intelligence on Academic Achievement, An Published Ph.D Thesis, Department of Education, Atarra College, Atarra, Dundelkhand University, Jhansi. Sabbaghi, Fereshteh (2007) The Study of Relationship between Depression and Academic Achievement in Graduate and Postgraduate Students, An Published Ph.D Thesis, Department of Education and Extension, University of Pune. Pandey S.N. and Md. Faiz Ahmad (2008) Significance of Difference between Male and Female Adolescents on Academic Performance, Achievement Motivation, Intelligence and Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Socio-Economic Status, Journal of Community Guidance and Research, Vol.25, No.1, Hyderabad, Sri Suresh Chandra Sharma, Neelkamal Publication Pvt. Ltd. Adeniyi Adeoye Hammad and Ayebamivi Victor Tarubeek (2008), “Five Variables as predictor of Academic Achievement among school going adolescents perspectives in education Baroda”, Indian Educational Abstracts, Vol.-24, No.2: 113-120. Yomgam, Bige (2009), “A study of Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Arunachal Pradesh”. An Unpublished Ph.D Theis, Deptt. of Education, Rajiv Gandhi University, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Lamare, Rubynia (2010) A Study of Academic Achievement in Relation to some PsychoSocial Variables of Secondary School Students in East Khasi Hills District, Meghalaya, An Published Ph.D Theis, Department of Education, School of Education North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong-793022, India. Pannu, Randeep (2010) A Study of Academic Achievement in Relation to Cognitive Styles, Personality Traits and Adjustment of Adolescents, An Published Ph.D Theis, Department of Education, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar Saini, Monika (2010) A Study of Academic Achievement of Scheduled Caste Secondary School Students in Relation to Study Habits, Home Environment and School Environment, An Published Ph.D Theis, Department of Education, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124001 Jose, Agnes (2011) An Analysis of Academic Achievement and Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence of School Children, An Published Ph.D Theis, School of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala. Zarinabegum, G (2012) A Study of Academic Achievement of Female Student Teachers of Karnataka in Relation to their Learning Style, Adjustment, Intelligence and Self- Concept, An Published Ph.D Theis, School of Education (M.Ed), Karnataka State Women’s University, Bijapur. Mondal. Bijoy, Soni, J.C & Dutta Jadab, (2014) “Evaluation of Social Science Curriculum at Elementary Stage in Assam” EDULIGHT Multi-Disciplinary, Bi-annual & Peer-Reviewed Journal, Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal-741235, India, ISSN: 22789545, vol. 3, Issue 6, Nov, pp- 186-196. Rajknower. Suresh, Soni, J.C & Dutta Jadab, (2014) “A Study of Adjustment, Level of Aspiration, Self-Concept and Academic Achievement of Visually Handicapped School Children of Assam” International Journal of Development Research, ISSN: 2230-9926, vol. 4, Issue. 4, pp. 902-907, April. Rajknower. Suresh, Dutta. Jadab & Soni, J.C, (2015) “Adjustment and Academic Achievement of Visually Handicapped School Children in Assam” International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), ISSN (Online): 2319-7064, Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14, Impact Factor (2013): 4.438, vol. 4, Issue. 4, April, pp. 1228-1235. Dutta. Jadab, Nath. Lakshinandan and Soni, J.C, “A Comparative Study on Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Lakhimpur District of Assam” International Journal of Psychology and Education, An Internationally Approved and Monthly PeerReviewed Journal, West wind Publishing House, Lowkhandwala Complex, Khandavilli East, Mumbai, Maharastra, India. ISSN: 2321-8606, 2016

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Quality Assurance and Quality Teaching in School Education in the 21ST Century Mr. Rakesh Manna M.Ed. Student, IGNOU & Asst.Teacher, Santipur Municipal High School (H.S.), Santipur, District - Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: srijanrkm@gmail.com & Dr. Jayanta Mete Professor, Department of Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, District - Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: jayanta_135@yahoo.co.in ABSTRACT The meaning of quality assurance may vary depending on the field of activity. School education is the foundation which prepares learners for tertiary education as well as for life. Quality is not an act, it is a habit. It generally signifies the degree of excellence. It is the totality of features and characteristics of the product, process or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. The best teacher of a particular school may be a poor teacher in some other school. However, the quest for quality has been the major concern of the entire human civilization. In the educational context, quality is seen as a complex issue as education is concerned with human being. Education and the challenges of preparing quality teachers are important priorities in many countries. India is no different. The success of what India hopes to achieve in education depends on the quality of its teachers. Competent and effective teachers help build a strong educational system. This paper argues that quality assurance determinations need to take account of how and to what extent students engage with activities that are likely to lead to productive learning.

Key Words: Quality Assurance, School Education, Quality Teacher, Student Introduction: It is very difficult to give a comprehensive definition of quality. Quality is contextual. Quality can be defined in many ways, for instance, quality as an exception, as perfection, as fitness for purpose, as value for money, and as transformative. The concern of any parent today is to make their children realize their dreams in life. The race for a good education starts the day the child enters in the school. With the economy becoming global year after year and parents attaching more importance to quality education, the competition to secure a seat in the best schools has become even more severe. Schools, therefore, should allow early acquisition of life skills within a complex learning environment. To be successful, teaching and learning and the learning environment in the school - must be coherent. This requires a capacitybuilding process, which permeates the whole school life and aims to achieve a wide range of governance including knowledge, skills, values and dispositions. Large numbers of researchers have viewed school quality in terms of the learning outcomes of students exhibited in form of cognitive achievement, which has been identified as the major explicit objective of all schools. Teacher education program is an integral part of educational system, which is directly linked with the society. Its scope and objectives have become larger in the modern society. This comprehensive paper is an attempt to provide an overview of the design, development and implementation of quality assurance mechanism set up to ensure the fulfillment of criteria, goals and objectives of school education.

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Aims and Objectives: Improvements in the quality of learning opportunities. Continuous improvement of teaching-learning process. Innovation and Enhancement of school education. Quality Improvement of school education. Monitoring or improving the quality of the school. To keep our collective knowledge of national quality assurance policies up to date. To advise the School on maintaining the accuracy of published information. Methodology: This study is basically based on the review of information collected from secondary sources i.e. published books, reports, research works, journals and newspapers. Some information is also collected through internet browsing. Quality education includes: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Learners who are healthy, well-nourished and ready to participate and learn, and supported in learning by their families and communities; Environments that are healthy, safe, protective and gender-sensitive, and provide adequate resources and facilities; Content that is reflected in relevant curricula and materials for the acquisition of basic skills, especially in the areas of literacy, numeracy and skills for life, and knowledge in such areas as gender, health, nutrition, HIV/AIDS prevention and peace. 7) Processes through which trained teachers use child-centred teaching approaches in 8) well-managed classrooms and schools and skilful assessment to facilitate learning and reduce disparities. 9) Outcomes that encompass knowledge, skills and attitudes, and are linked to national goals for education and positive participation in society. Quality Assurance: Quality Assurance is a process oriented to guaranteeing that the quality of a product or a service meets some predetermined standard. Quality assurance makes no assumptions about the quality of competing products or services. The aim in quality assurance is to ensure that a product or service is fit for the market.

Quality Control: Planned and systematic review process of an institution or program to determine that acceptable standards of education, scholarship, and infrastructure are being maintained and enhanced. Usually includes expectations that mechanisms of quality control are in place and effective. Quality Improvement:The expectation that an institution will have in places a plan to monitor and improve the quality of its programs. In most cases, quality assurance and accrediting agencies require that established procedures ensure that this is an ongoing process. Quality Improvement is concerned with raising the quality of a product or service. The type of comparison that is made when engaged in quality improvement is Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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between the current standard of a product or service and the standard being aimed for. Quality improvement is concerned with comparing the quality of what is about to be produced with the quality of what has been produced in the past. Quality improvement is therefore primarily concerned with self rather than with others. Processes focused on quality improvement are also focused more on specific aspects of an organizational unitâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance than on overall performance. It is usually the case that constraints dictate that efforts at improvement need to be targeted at areas of greatest need. Need for School Quality Assessment and Accreditation: Assessment and Accreditation essentially aims at Institutional capacity building for continuous quality improvement through self-analysis and self-monitoring of quality enhancement processes. Assessment and Evaluation of an Institution is intended to be a means to document its Educational Quality and Institutional Effectiveness. Fostering Institutional improvement and demonstrating its accountability are complementary processes that assure the quality of an Institution. On the whole, it would help institutions in capacity building. The process of accreditation would monitor identified outcomes at all levels and across all spheres of school education. It would help teachers, educational administrators and all other stakeholders involved in school education to learn from this exercise and improve themselves. It refers to a voluntary method of quality assurance mostly achieved through interventional and participative processes carried out by peer assessors on behalf of an agency or the Board. It is both a process and a status. As a process it reflects the fact that in the process of achieving accreditation the school goes through a process of self discovery and self audit as well as external review by peers which help to qualitatively improve the institution. In terms of status, it provides public with the information that school meets the standards of quality set forth by an accrediting agency. Quality Assurance in School Systems: Makes explicit the purpose and nature of educational provision. Have clear educational goals and the relevant curriculum. Responsibility for ensuring quality in the school system remains with the main actors in the system â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the schools and teachers themselves Helps to create a sense of accountability for the day-to-day work of schools and classrooms and a shared commitment to high standard

Quality Learners: Good health and nutrition Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Early childhood psychosocial development experiences Regular attendance for learning Family support for learning Quality Learning Environments: 1. Physical elements: Quality of school facilities, Interaction between school infrastructure and other quality dimensions, Class size. 2. Psychosocial elements: Peaceful, safe environments, especially for girls, Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviours that affect safety, Effective school discipline policies, Inclusive environments, Non-violence. 3. Service delivery: Provision of health services Quality Content: Student-centred, non-discriminatory, standards-based curriculum structures. Uniqueness of local and national content. Literacy. Numeracy. Life skills. Peace education. Challenges in reaching large numbers of children with quality content. Quality Processes: 1. Teachers: Professional learning for teachers. Teacher competence and school efficiency. Ongoing professional development. Continuing support for student-centred learning. Active, standards-based participation methods. Teacher feedback mechanisms. Teacher beliefs that all students can learn. Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; working conditions. 2. Supervision and support:

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Administrative support and leadership. Student access to languages used at school. Using technologies to decrease rather than increase disparities. Diversity of processes and facilities. Quality Outcomes: Achievement in literacy and numeracy Using formative assessment to improve achievement outcomes. Outcomes sought by parents Outcomes related to community participation, learner confidence and life-long learning. Experiential approaches to achieving desired outcomes. Strategies for Quality Assurance: In-service teacher education - ongoing advanced training School inspections External assessment of knowledge Pedagogical leadership by the school head Self-evaluation A successful quality strategy begins with an organizational environment that fosters quality, followed by an understanding of the principles of quality, and then an effect to engage employees in the necessary activities to implement quality. The elements that can be adopted and reinforced by a certain strategy for school effectiveness are as follows; Clear and shared vision of what students are to achieve in the particular school. A means of translating this vision into a strategic development plan for the school. Ownership of the vision and development plan by all stake holders in the school community who is responsible, for what, and by when. Identification of the professional development requirements for staff to implement the schools development program. Structures and processes for monitoring the implementation and effectiveness of the strategies for school development, with provision for feedback to the implementation process itself. A periodic review and evaluation of achievements, one which takes stock of plans for further development in the school. Such quality strategies could involve, staff development and cultural change, rewarding excellence, establishing a new educational policy and incorporating self-evaluation.

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Factors of quality concerns in teacher education: The major factors of quality concerns in teacher education are input, process and product factors. Input Factors: Input factors involve the entire physical infrastructure sec as building, equipment, library, books, laboratory and playground etc. it also includes ‘students’ entry behavior such as their family background, socio-economic status, academic achievement, their interest, need etc. teachers’ entry behavior such as their academic and professional background, socio-economic status, their attitude towards teaching profession, interest, etc. are also considered as input factors. Process Factors: A teacher education programme is said to be successful if its outcomes are maximized amongst the trainees in terms of development of necessary skills, Values and attitudes. These outcomes are largely depending upon how effectively the process of training is organized. Quality lies in its processes. Output is the result of processes. A process is a particular course of action intended to achieve the desired results. It is a sustained phenomenon marked by gradual changes through a series of actions that lead towards a particular result. It may be natural or man-made but a continuous activity or functions (Mishra, 2002). Good quality inputs coupled with weak processes may not lead to desired outcomes. On the other hand, good quality processes coupled with minimum desirable inputs may lead to desired outcomes. It includes the instructional strategies and processes. Product Factors: Product factors are the desired outputs of a given course of instructions. It determines whether objectives of a particular course of instruction are being achieved or not. They are students’ academic achievement, commitment to teaching profession, efficiency in learning, personality development, etc. Implications for institutional actors of an engagement in quality teaching: Teachers Exploit the new technological tools to improve student-to-teacher interaction and to better assess student progress Link practices, methods and tools with the institutional global quality teaching policy Collaborate with the quality units in the design and implementation of curricula Take the opportunity to reflect about their own actions and role in the enhancement of quality, gaining commitment to reflective practice and resulting adaptation and innovation Consider the possible consequences in a teacher’s career progression Institution Leaders Sustain quality teaching in a continuing, effective and explicit way Motivate the head of departments Combine and balance top-down with bottom-up approaches

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Ensure adequate time, people, funding and facilities for planning and implementing quality teaching initiatives Engage the whole community, including administrative staff and students Students Collaborate actively with teachers and leaders in the definition of the initiative and of quality teaching concept itself, keeping the interaction alive and raising concerns about teaching, learning environments, quality of content and teacher attitudes Use associations and students group to bring new ideas and influence the institutional policy on quality teaching Quality Teaching Units Ensure that the institutional policy on quality teaching is understood and implemented properly by faculty members Reconsider their reflection role in addition to the more technical one Combine research in educational sciences with the definition of practices Experiment to develop new measurement and evaluation methods Be receptive and enhance communication tools to gather teacher and student suggestions Keep an open-oriented approach towards external inputs and good practices examples, creating a communication network with quality assurance agencies and external partners Major Findings: (i). Employed inadequate methods for the supervision of teachers in the schools, (ii). Methods of teaching and learning were more teacher centred and this failed to encourage students to learn by participation and experimentation. (iii). Financial constraint was the major challenge faced by school and all other challenges such as inadequate facilities, low quality teachers employed, student absenteeism, student transfers and indiscipline, unexploited resources and lack of in-service training are linked to this. (iv). Quality assurance officers had ignored their roles of visiting the schools and offering the necessary advice on the improvement of quality of education. Recommendations: Based on the findings of this study, it was therefore recommended that: (i). Secondary school should take up their roles as quality assurance officers in their schools and ensure that there is adequate departmental supervision. (ii). Authority should introduce staff appraisal through locally designed forms to enhance standards and engage in evaluative class observation, to ensure that a variety of teaching methods, apart from class discussion, is utilized. (iii). Authority should devise school income generating projects to alleviate current financial problems that result in student absenteeism, transfers, indiscipline and inadequate facilities. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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(iv). Authority should devise strategies, such as old students’ associations and organize communal fundraisers, to help equip schools for the delivery of quality education. Conclusion: The quality assurance programmes must be modified to suit the conditions prevailing in developing countries, by being simple in design, modest in expectations, and realistic in requirements. School evaluation aims at monitoring or improving the quality of the school as a whole. School evaluation may relate to a broad range of school activities, including teaching and learning and/or all aspects of school management. There are two major types of school evaluation: external evaluation, which is conducted by evaluators who are not staff members of the school concerned, and internal evaluation, performed primarily by members of its staff. Schools hesitate to go for student feedback and Parent satisfaction surveys, denying permission to researchers for conducting research in their school. Moreover, transparency is just one of several, perhaps more important, factors that may influence a school's autonomy in making decisions about the curriculum; the qualifications of teachers; and the existence of a clear framework of accountability etc. Thus, transparency and accountability in the education system make the basic service delivery more effective. By promoting dialogue and strategic partnerships between school leaders, key stakeholders and civil society, School leadership can promote positive change and reform at various levels, empowering the stakeholders to demand transparent and effective services from the schools. References: www.unesco.org/.../education/...education...education/quality-a... www.eqavet.eu › Home › Glossary Web site: http://www.unesco.org/iiep. ervlet/redirect.srv/spa/swl/syavhpslvxlzddggsfolx/scde/p2/news/define-quality-then-well-talkassurance/166563.article Higher Education Council. (1997). Quality in resource based learning. Canberra, ACT: National Board of Employment, Education, and Training. www.naacindia.org/Institutions_accredited_by_NAAC_with_validity.pdf. Web site: http://www.cepes.ro. Biggs, J. (2001), The reflective institution: assuring and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning, Higher Education, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 221-238. Bradley (2008), Review of Australian Higher Education Final Report (the Bradley Review), Australian Government, December 2008. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000), Futures of Teaching in American Education, Journal of Educational Change, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 353- 373. ENQA (European Association for Quality Assurance): http://www.enqa.eu/files/CNE handbook.pdf Sharma, Savitri. (2013), Quality Assurance in Teacher Education, International Educational E-Journal, {Quarterly}, ISSN 2277-2456, Volume-II, Issue-III, July-Aug-Sept 2013. Defining Quality in Education, A paper presented by UNICEF at the meeting of The International Working Group on Education Florence, Italy June 2000,New York, USA Sindhi, Ms. Swaleha.(2013)Does Quality Assurance In school Education Ensure Transparency And Accountability? www.ajku.edu.pk/qec/QEC-Workshops

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Charles Baudelaire, the ‘modern’ Frenchman Sayonee Acharya Assistant Teacher at Durgapur Junior High School, Bholadanga, District - Nadia & Ph. D. Research Scholar, Department of Film Studies, Jadavpur University, West Bengal E-mail:aquanymph2187@gmail.com ABSTRACT This paper traces the elements of modernism in the poems of Charles Baudelaire that elevates him to the status of a great and influential modernist not only of France, but of the entire Europe of all time. Considering the most celebrated collection of his poetic works, Les Fleurs du Mal, Baudelaire stands class apart as an institution in himself in his concretization of conceptions like good and evil, beauty and ugly, life and death, transient and permanent. The clarity of his thought, the precision of his language, the compactness of his imagery, go way far in positioning him as the rightful predecessor of some of the greatest English modernists of the twentieth century.

Terms like ‘modern’, ‘modernity’, ‘modernism’, ‘modernization’ or any other term of the same genre, encapsulate in them a quest, a fervent quest for something that had once existed but has ceased to do so thereafter, a wistful quest for something too remote to be realized with senses, a nostalgic quest for the bygone days, bygone glories, bygone memories, a frantic quest for a reliable and effective mode of self-expression and self-assertion. ‘Modernity’ connotes the cultural conditioning of any civilization, and ‘modernization’ is a mode of experience, an experience of space and time, an experience of the self and the other, an experience of life’s perils and possibilities that are experienced both by men and women alike across the globe. To be ‘modern’ is to find ourselves amidst power, adventure, joy, growth, but simultaneously fraught with the painful realization of having to lose everything we own, everything we know, everything that makes us what we are. Hence, to be modern is to be part of a universe in which, as Marx has said, “all that is solid melts into air”. Modernity apparently appears to be unifying mankind irrespective of the boundaries of geography and ethnicity, of class and nationality, of religion and ideology, and yet it is replete with disintegration and contradiction, struggle and renewal, ambiguity and anguish. The modern man is an extraordinarily enriched creature, endowed with the divine faculty of ‘reason’- the inherent faculty that enables him to struggle and survive in a world of alienation, the inquisitive faculty that provokes him to question his position in the vast cosmos, the instinctive faculty that makes him conscious of his own self, realize its essence, and place it above everything else in the universe. In this sense, the germination of ‘modernism’ traces back to the beginning of the sixteenth century Elizabethan England, better known as the Renaissance or the age of enlightenment. It is the golden era of English history as England reaches the zenith of enrichment in almost every sphere of life with path-breaking scientific inventions, momentous geographical explorations, and radical artistic and literary creations. It is an age of constant struggle to reignite and reinstate the long-lost glory of the Greek-oRoman civilization. It is during this period that man seems to open his eyes for the first time ever, and see. He sees his own self, he sees his surroundings, he sees the distant world, he sees beyond the world into the wider cosmos. He questions everything that comes his way before conforming to it, he strives to unravel the deepest secrets of life and civilization, and in so doing he arrives at discovering the unassailable superiority of the human self, thereby placing it at the centre of every other thing in the universe, including God himself. This is Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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precisely the sole reason behind the epoch-making transition from a theocentric philosophical order to a homocentric world-view. The second wave of modernity in England is felt during the late eighteenth century with the French Revolution ringing the death-knell of an age of aridity, ennui and triteness. The revolution with its reverberations generates explosive upheavals in every dimension of personal, social and political life. And the final vibes of modernity are sensed during the nineteenth and twentieth century when this wave expands to take in virtually the whole world, and achieves spectacular triumphs in art and thought. People realize what it is like to live materially and spiritually in a world of material abundance and spiritual aridity, a world of alienation and fragmentation, a world of creation and demolition, at the edge of an abyss. Talking about modernity in his essay What is Modernity, Henry Lefebvre draws a striking contradistinction between the political perspective of German philosopher Carl Marx and the aesthetic approach of French poet and thinker Charles Pierre Baudelaire towards modernity. It is interesting to note that Marx and Baudelaire adopt two completely antithetical and contrasting perspectives within an identical situation. Whereas Marx defines ‘modern’ as the abstraction and duality of modern life, Baudelaire on the other hand, interprets this duality in a completely different way in an attempt to capture the distant reflection of a long-lost eternal beauty in trivial everyday things. But what unifies both these philosophers is that both are in consonance with the fact that modernity is essentially characterized by an antithetical bipolarity and that nothing is absolute in a modern world. Marx designates a form of the ‘state’ that must be omnipotent and elevated above society, yet maintaining an intimate liaison with everyday life and social practices in general. This state separates the private life from the social and political life, and draws a distinct barrier between the polarities like the private and the public, the personal and the social, and ultimately, man and nature. Nature, according to Marx, is lost, forgotten, split and torn apart by culture and knowledge, by the control man exercises over it, and by which man becomes human. This nature necessarily needs to be rediscovered by man after transforming and distorting it by filtration through a prismatic bourgeois society which perpetually aims at splitting and fragmenting the world into bits. Marx has an immense faith on the revolutionary praxis or a political struggle which he believes will reduce the separations and divisions and fragments and dualities that characterize the modern world. He thinks that the praxis will transform the world by creating an alternative world, resolving the conflicts within social life by bridging the intolerable gap between the private and the public, between the specific and the general, between man and nature, between the doings and misdoings on the level of everyday life and what transpires on the higher level like the state, art or philosophy. Whereas Marx thinks of the modern world politically, making every other areas of knowledge subservient to political knowledge, Baudelaire tries to think of the modern world aesthetically, making all types of action and knowledge subservient to art. Whereas Marx holds faith in the praxis which he believes will eventually resolve the gulf between the binaries of the modern world, Baudelaire completely resides his hope on art for this resolution. His originality lies in his ability, or at least, his desire to create and portray modern man as the refinements of the excess that civilization has made him, modern man with his acute and vibrant senses, his painfully subtle spirit, his brain stuffed with tobacco stench, his blood boiling with alcohol. To him this sensitive individual is a ‘hero’, a hero that lurks unnoticed and unacknowledged beneath each and every soul walking under the sun, striving hard to make a living in an ever devouring bourgeois world. He accepts this modern man with all his strength and frailties, his hopes and despairs, his aspirations and Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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desperations. He even accepts the bourgeois world as a world, but he decides to use its raw material for the work of art; he transforms it into poetry not by stressing its antitheses- the abstract and the concrete, nature and anti-nature, beauty and ugliness, good and evil- but by bringing about an internal transformation through negation and self-recreation. Baudelaire visualizes beauty as something always and inevitably compounded of two elements, on the one hand, of eternal and invariable, and on the other hand, of a relative, circumstantial element. His eyes are in constant search for beauty and he sees beauty, or rather, gives beauty to sights that do not possess beauty in themselves, not by making them romantically picturesque, but by bringing to light the portion of the human soul hidden in them. He believes that artists should have an access to beauty and should represent the world in their art forms with beauty. To him representation and creation are more important than the real and the natural. Therefore his aesthetic attitude is based upon an anti-nature stance as he deliberately chooses to discard nature and naturalism, and strives to develop an art-form that would imitate nothing external, and would be purely creative and hence, purely artificial. He makes a conscious departure from the mimetic and imitative trend of art and feuds to establish something like the art for art’s sake notion. He both accepts as well as rejects the rifts and chasms he observes at the heart of the real, between himself and the real, between the real and the ideal. In this context Henry Lefebvre, referring to Baudelaire, asserts in his essay ‘What is Modernity’On the basis of his decision to be creative he uses the real as the raw material for his poetry, and in doing so he gives unwarranted importance to a second degree abstraction, literary language. (Introduction to Modernity, 174) What Baudelaire is trying to formulate is a kind of medium for communication which will possess enormous power to transfigure and invest reality with beauty and aesthetic qualities, without imitating it. Poetic language should aspire to be a self-sufficient independent world, a world in itself, which will have the potential to make a passage through the enigma of the world- the human world as well as the superhuman, supernatural world. It should be as transparent as distilled water in which one can assuredly discover the reflection of the world as it is or as they yearn for it to be. It is through this language that Baudelaire believes the dualities and divisions and disjunctions of the modern world can be resolved, the real and the ideal can be reunited, the abstract and the concrete can be coalesced. This language pulsates with inner tension at some points and throbs with defiance at other moments. It is at once timeless and circumstantial. If we go through Baudelaire’s work, we will find that it is replete with several distinctive visions of modernity, some of which, at times, seem to be violently opposed to one another, and interestingly, he himself is not always aware of the tension between them. Baudelaire’s most ambitious poetic venture, Les Fleurs du Mal, translated as The Flowers of Evil, evokes a world of paradox already implicit in the contrast of the title. The word ‘mal’ (French word for ‘evil’ and ‘sickness’) comes to signify the pain and misery inflicted on the speaker, which he responds to with melancholy, anxiety, and a fear of death. But for Baudelaire, there is also something seductive about evil. Thus, while writing The Flowers of Evil, he often says that his intent is to extract beauty from evil. Unlike traditional poets who only focus on the simplistically pretty, Baudelaire chooses to fuel his language with horror, sin, and the macabre. He describes this duality in the very introductory poem, Au Lecteur, translated as To the Reader, where he explains that he and the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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reader form two sides of the same coin. Together, they play out what Baudelaire calls the tragedy of man's ‘two-ness’. He personally addresses his reader as a partner in the creation of his poetic language, someone who will understand, like him, the dilapidated state of the modern worldThere is one more ugly, more wicked, more filthy! Although he makes neither great gestures nor great cries, He would willingly make of the earth a shambles And, in a yawn, swallow the world; He is Ennui! — His eye watery as though with tears, He dreams of scaffolds as he smokes his hookah pipe. You know him reader, that refined monster, — Hypocrite reader, — my fellow, — my brother! (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Here the poet evokes a world filled with decay, sin, and hypocrisy, and dominated by Satan. Instinctively drawn toward hell, humans are nothing but instruments of death, "more ugly, more wicked, more filthy" than any monster or demon. The poet claims that he and the reader complete this image of humanity: One side of humanity (the reader) reaches for fantasy and false honesty, while the other (the poet) exposes the boredom of modern life. Baudelaire struggles with his Catholicism his whole life and, thus makes religion a prevalent theme in his poetry. His language is steeped in biblical imagery, from the wrath of Satan, to the crucifixion, to the Fall of Adam and Eve. He is obsessed with Original Sin, lamenting the loss of his free will and projecting his sense of guilt onto images of women. Yet in the first part of Spleen et Ideal, translated as Spleen and Ideal, Baudelaire emphasizes the harmony and perfection of an ideal world through his special closeness to God. Whereas “spleen” refers to all that is wrong in the world- fear, anguish, monotony, lust, degradation, ugliness, sickness, transience, “ideal’ stands for everything that the poet’s heart yearns for- beauty, solace, permanence, morality, divinity. In Elevation he urges his soul to transcend and escape the frets and fever of a baneful civilization and attain sublime emancipation in the heavenly abode. In conveying the power of the poet, Baudelaire relies on the language of mythically sublime and spiritual exoticismAbove the lakes, above the vales, The mountains and the woods, the clouds, the seas, Beyond the sun, beyond the ether, Beyond the confines of the starry spheres, My soul, you move with ease, And like a strong swimmer in rapture in the wave You wing your way blithely through boundless space With virile joy unspeakable. Fly far, far away from this baneful miasma And purify yourself in the celestial air,

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Drink the ethereal fire of those limpid regions As you would the purest of heavenly nectars. (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) In Correspondences, Baudelaire, like a conjurer, brings his poetic language to life by evoking concrete sensory images that at once appeal to the reader’s sensibilities and offer him a passage from real to the idealThere are perfumes as cool as the flesh of children, Sweet as oboes, green as meadows — And others are corrupt, and rich, triumphant, With power to expand into infinity, Like amber and incense, musk, benzoin, That sing the ecstasy of the soul and senses. (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) In La Chevelure, translated as, The Head of Hair, the figure of a woman further contributes to this ideal world as an intermediary to happiness. The poet must either breathe in a woman's scent, caress her hair, or otherwise engage with her presence in order to conjure up the paradise he seeks. His fervent ecstasy in this poem derives from the sensual presence of his lover indeterminately refers to “sweltering Africa and languorous Asia” whose abstract presence further stimulates the reader's imagination with mythical symbolismO fleecy hair, falling in curls to the shoulders! O black locks! O perfume laden with nonchalance! Ecstasy! To people the dark alcove tonight With memories sleeping in that thick head of hair. I would like to shake it in the air like a scarf! Sweltering Africa and languorous Asia, A whole far-away world, absent, almost defunct, Dwells in your depths, aromatic forest! While other spirits glide on the wings of music, Mine, O my love! floats upon your perfume. (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) He then travels back in time, rejecting reality and the material world, and conjuring up the spirits of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rembrandt, and others in Les Phares, translated as The Beacons. The power of the poet allows the speaker to invoke sensations from the reader that correspond to the works of each artistic figure. Thus, he uses this power, his imagination, to create beacons that, like divine opium, illuminate a mythical world that mortals, lost in the wide woods, cannot usually seeLeonardo, dark, unfathomable mirror, In which charming angels, with sweet smiles Full of mystery, appear in the shadow Of the glaciers and pines that enclose their country;

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Rembrandt, gloomy hospital filled with murmuring, Ornamented only with a large crucifix, Lit for a moment by a wintry sun, Where from rot and ordure rise tearful prayers; Angelo, shadowy place where Hercules' are seen Mingling with Christs, and rising straight up, Powerful phantoms, which in the twilights Rend their winding-sheets with outstretched fingers; (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Despite the poet's preliminary evocation of an ideal world, The Flowers of Evil's inevitable focus is the poet's “spleen”. Although the soothing ideal world in the first section does remain a significant presence for the poet, it will now serve primarily as a reminder of his need to escape from a torturous reality. Even L’ Ideal, translated as The Ideal, begins with “It will never be the beauties that vignettes show." Baudelaire's juxtaposition of the poem's title with its content suggests that the ideal is an imagined impossibility. He insists that he cannot find the ideal rose for which he has been looking, declaring that his heart is an empty holeIt will never be the beauties that vignettes show, Those damaged products of a good-for-nothing age, Their feet shod with high shoes, hands holding castanets, Who can ever satisfy any heart like mine. I leave to Gavarni, poet of chlorosis, His prattling troop of consumptive beauties, For I cannot find among those pale roses A flower that is like my red ideal. (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Baudelaire uses the theme of love and passion to play out this interaction between the ideal and the spleen. The beauty of a woman is real but it tempts him to sin. Both angel and siren, this woman brings him close to God but closer to Satan. He refers to his lover as a witch and demon in Sed non Satiata, translated as Still not Satisfied. The reality of her tortuous presence awakens him from his opium-induced dream, his desire pulling him toward hellSingular deity, brown as the nights, Scented with the perfume of Havana and musk, Work of some obeah, Faust of the savanna, Witch with ebony flanks, child of the black midnight… …Through those two great black eyes, the outlets of your soul, O pitiless demon! pour upon me less flame; I'm not the River Styx to embrace you nine times, (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) The poet originally intends his love to be a source of escape but is soon reminded of the cruel impossibility of love that characterizes his reality. For him, love is nothing but a Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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decomposing carrion. Instead of life, love reminds him of death- a woman's kiss becomes poisonous. A very similar strain of profound contemplation is observed in Une Charogne, translated as A Carcass, where the poet-persona having gone out on a walk with his beloved comes across a rotting carcass and realizes with utmost gloom that one day his beloved too would degenerated into thisâ&#x20AC;&#x201D; And yet you will be like this corruption, Like this horrible infection, Star of my eyes, sunlight of my being, You, my angel and my passion! Yes! thus will you be, queen of the Graces, After the last sacraments, When you go beneath grass and luxuriant flowers, To molder among the bones of the dead. (Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Death as a motif becomes conspicuously prominent towards the later poems of The Flowers of Evil, especially the four poems entitled Spleen. The poet's imagination is haunted by images of graveyard, cemetery, corpses, ghosts, falcons, and bats crashing into walls. Yet he finds something majestic about these negativities of life, and his language emerges from themJanuary, irritated with the whole city, Pours from his urn great waves of gloomy cold On the pale occupants of the nearby graveyard And death upon the foggy slums. (Spleen- I, Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) â&#x20AC;&#x201D; I am a cemetery abhorred by the moon, In which long worms crawl like remorse And constantly harass my dearest dead. (Spleen- II, Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Nothing can cheer him, neither the chase nor falcons, Nor his people dying before his balcony. The ludicrous ballads of his favorite clown No longer smooth the brow of this cruel invalid; His bed, adorned with fleurs-de-lis, becomes a grave; (Spleen- III, Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) When the earth is changed into a humid dungeon, In which Hope like a bat Goes beating the walls with her timid wings And knocking her head against the rotten ceiling; (Spleen- IV, Translated by William Aggeler, 1954) Unquestionably, Baudelaire happens to be one of the pioneers of modernism in France and thereby across the globe. His eternal quest for and usage of a literary language that will possess the power to beautify the trivia of daily life and bridge the chasm between Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the earthly and the ethereal places his poetry in the highest order of quintessential modernity. His creations inspire a century of poets of the modern era in Europe as well in America, for their concrete imageries, crisp vocabularies and connotative allusions. He stands a class apart in being the precursor of literary movements like aestheticism, decadence, expressionism, impressionism and imagism having strongly influenced literary stalwarts like Ezra Pound, T.S. Eliot, W.B. Yeats, D.H. Lawrence to name only a few. Eliot’s poetries like The Hollow Men, Preludes, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, Rhapsody on a Windy Night, and his masterpiece, The Waste Land, rightfully considered as the bible of modern poetry, are reminiscent of Baudelaire’s poems in their matchless projection of a death-in-life stasis in modern civilization. What Baudelaire sees in nineteenth century modern Paris, Eliot sees it in twentieth century modern England. Eliot’s language is a verbal collage of images of every next object one comes across in daily life- a burning cigarette, broken chimneys, sooted window blinds, emaciated animals like dogs, cats, horses, obtrusive prostitutes, alcoholstenched youths, and so on. Assembled out of dramatic vignettes based on the poet’s London life, The Waste Land’s extraordinary intensity stems from a fusion of diverse materials into a rhythmic whole of great skill. A poem suffused with the contemporary decay and horror of an urbanized, modernized, civilized life, it was received by the postwar generation as a rallying cry over its sense of disillusionment and alienation. Yet The Waste Land concludes with an unmistakable flickering hope of salvation of the modern men in the poet’s silent incantation“shantih shantih shantih”. But both The Hollow Men and Preludes end in utter morbid cynicism, where the poet seems to have lost every hope of redemption of this accursed, mechanized, spiritually dehydrated, emotionally desiccated humanityThis is the way the world ends Not with a bang but a whimper. (The Hollow Men) The worlds revolve like ancient women Gathering fuel in vacant lots. (Preludes) Put your shoes at the door, sleep, prepare for life The last twist of the knife. (Rhapsody on a Windy Night) Works Cited Baudelaire, Charles. Les Fleurs du mal. BiblioBazaar, 2008. Eliot, T. S. The Complete Poems and Plays of T. S. Eliot. Faber & Faber Edition, 2011. Lefebvre, Henri. Introduction to Modernity. London : Verso, 1995.

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English Language Teaching in India: An Overview Sunandita Sarker Assistant Professor & Head, Department of English, Lokepara Mahavidyalaya Kuliara, District – Birbhum, West Bengal The East India Company established in 1600 A.D for business and imperialistic purposes reduced several small kingdoms in India to a single entity under British control. For effective and persevering administration, participation from the Indians was necessary. The language of the ruler became the ruler of languages. By 1717 Danish missionaries had opened two charity schools in Madras. In 1818, the Bishop of Calcutta founded a college to produce young preachers and to impart a knowledge of the English language to the Hindus and Muslims. In 1823, Mount Stuart Elphinstone urged the opening of schools for teaching English and the European Sciences. Motivated by this impulse, he set up a school in the following year. By this time the recommendations of Lord Macaulay (1833) had been in circulation; it became the all-known aim of the Britishers to produce more clerks and typists from the Indians for their different offices. Thus, under the British rule, English became the lingua franca of the educated class in India. Lord William Bentick’s (March 7,1835) and Lord Hardinges’s proclamations (1844) regarding the promotion of Indian interest in English Literature and language, along with European culture and sciences, strengthened further the position of English in India. Apart from producing clerks; English education was to create a medium of communication to come to terms with the best in cultural terms, it is a medium for the study of arts and sciences, and further the vocational or professional interests, like law, medicine, engineering and technology. In order to bring about effective administration, the British took interest in the geography, culture and languages of India. Captain James Rennell brought out The Bengal Atlas in 1779, the culmination of more than a decade’s effort, the first modern Atlas of the province. Duplicating Rennell’s effort in other British controlled territories, especially in the Deccan and Mysore, the British set about mapping the intellectual, cultural and historical dimensions of the territories. By 1800 number of texts in English- grammars, dictionaries teaching aids, phrase books and translations of literary works, digests and compendiums, which facilitated colonization and explained the acquisition to the company’s servants in India as well as informed the scientific community in England. Before the founding of Hindu college in 1817, there was a lot of public debate in Calcutta and England over the purpose of colonial education by Britishers and Indians. A director of the East India Company opined that they had lost America by their own folly of allowing schools and colleges and should not repeat the same in case of India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1823said that the Sanskrit system of education would be best suited to keep the country in darkness, he took cudgels on behalf of English education for Indians and against the Orientalists. The Anglicist-Orientalist controversy came to be resolved by Thomas Babington Macaulay’s “Minutes on Education”. It said “we must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect”. This class consisted largely of the urban elite. Many of them were immigrants with a lot of landed property in the interior districts, but came to the city in lure of office jobs in the expanding British administration, the key to which was a knowledge of English. For the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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sons of elite families, there was the Hindu College where they acquired a command of the English Language and its literature and science almost equal to the schools in Europe. The impact of this change was that the Indians had mastered the colonizer’s language and began to adopt it as a medium of expression. Language is not only a medium of communication; it is also a marker of identity. It structures our universe and according to some philosophers such as Wittgenstein, it delimits the structure the structure of our thought, it is through language we acquire knowledge and the conceptual structures that inhabit our minds often have linguistic correlates associated with them. Certain biological, structural, social and psychological aspect influences the perception of language. It is language, and not dialect that has a script, literature and grammar and is marked by its large scale acceptance. Dialects may have systematic grammars, but for lack of social, economic and political power, they are stigmatized. For example, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Maithali, all of which known to be roots of the standard khari boli hindi are stigmatized as dialects. This stereotype is rooted in the power relationship of a society. Language spoken by the underprivileged members of a society like farmers, workers, tribals, slum dwellers are considered as ‘dialects’ and not ‘standard language’. It is important for us to realize that the elite are vested with power to standardize its speech by means of publication of newspaper periodicals, dictionaries books..etc, by enforcing it as a means of instruction at all levels of education . In India there has been an increasing mystification and deification of English socially and pedagogically. It is meant for a special group of people taught in prestigious public or convent schools, upwardly mobile urban population with cosmopolitan exposure. These people have access to better jobs with high salary, and the knowledge of the English Language opens doors to trade commerce and work, which remain otherwise closed to vernacular medium. However, the case is not so throughout the country. The English Language restricted to a few privileged has often been a matter of resentment throughout the nation. A lot of public debate, demonstrations with nationalist zeal has erupted to go back to roots and use the vernacular medium for all official purposes and medium of education and instruction. Those who fought for the dignity of the country, saw in English Language the continuation of the colonial rule in India. However, in South India, Hindi was seen as a threat of North Indian supremacy over South. The elite section of society was evidently in favour of English, but Hindi was declared as the language for all official purpose in the Constituent Assembly of 1949. English was given the status of associate language for fifteen years . The day( 26 January, 1965), English was supposed to be abolished approached, there were widespread riots all over the country, the upholders of hindi failed to establish Hindi as the only official language and further antagonized people all over the country and created a fear of imposition of Hindi. English was instrumental in Nationalist propaganda. Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Subhash Chandra Bose used English extensively in their writing. Even creative voices like Mulk Raj Anand, R.K Narayan and Raja Rao all wrote in English. To device a standard English which was one of the concerns of elite community. In the 1966 report of the Education Commission of India, it was made necessary that to complete the first degree course, a student must have adequate command of English in expression and understanding. English therefore became the most useful language in higher education and a very important means of exposure to the world. India is a multilingual society and any monistic solution would not work. English was increasingly associated with wider opportunities, library language and international contact. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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However, the growing importance of English was not only challenged by Hindi propagandists, but more minority and tribal languages were claiming their share in the state’s education and power structure. The government therefore had to introduce a three-language formula in 1961. It tried to accommodate the interests of group identity (mother tongue and regional identity), national pride and unity (Hindi) and technological progress, scientific knowledge and administrative governance (English). The objective behind the three language formula was to make the Hindi-speaking states learn a language from the south, east or west India as the third language. But they chose Sanskrit. West Bengal and Orissa too chose Sanskrit. The Southern states resented that they were forced to learn a North Indian language while the reverse was not true. Many saw in the Hindi enthusiasm dangerous signs of Aryanisation. Therefore the Eastern and Southern states increased the importance of English. Tamil Nadu and Mizoram decided on a two language system- native language and English. For teaching English anthologies of English poets, playwrights and short story writers were prepared to introduce Indian learners to the literature and culture of the world. Translation was a very reliable tool for English language teaching. The missionaries, with their aim of converting people to Christianity began teaching English to educated people on the ethical values associated with Christianity. The primary purpose initially was to spread European knowledge among superstitious Indians and English was a medium to achieve this goal. To achieve this, bilingual approach seemed inevitable. Bilingual teachers were trained to translate well known English texts into Indian languages. Macaulay’s proposal that English would henceforth be the language of government, education and advancement and therefore all funds appropriated for education would be employed to further English education alone. The missionary schools which were seen operating since the nineteenth century included the Bible, Paley’s Natural Theology, Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Bacon’s Novum Organum, Plato’s Dialogue, Milton’s Paradise Lost, Richardson’s Selection from the British Poets, Pope’s Illiad by Homer, Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Othello and Macbeth, Addison’s Essays and Johnson’s Lives of the Poets. It is worth noting that English studies in India coincided with the beginning of the declining status of classical literary studies in England. Traditional methods of learning other languages in India were based on the Kavya (literature) and Vyakaran (grammar), and the grammar translation method formed the basis of studying classical languages like Sanskrit and Persian. So in order to learn and aquire an understanding of another language; interpretation of texts with the help of a dictionary and grammar for the rules of inflection and syntax and memorizing large parts of canonical texts was in vogue. Similar methods and materials for teaching of English as a foreign language were employed. According to the annual report of the college of Haji Mohammad Mohsin, Hooghly of 1941, it was instructed that a small portion of each day would be devoted to translating a portion of English into Bengali and vice versa. If the said practice was done continually for two years, the learner would have acquired the ability to translate easily from Bengali or English newspapers. Grammar was a separate discipline by itself, and rules of grammar and their application formed a part of examination question paper. It was assumed that children needed to be taught grammar, instead of allowing them to infer automatically from the spoken language itself. There are four language skills- listening, speaking, writing and reading. The first two are natural. When a child is born, it hears the language spoken by its mother and other Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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members of the family and community. The child then tries to imitate the speech sounds that it has heard for a considerable period of time. Therefore it is important that the child listens to a language being spoken so that it can speak the same later on. So, it can be said that language begins with the ear. One who can hear will speak. But writing and reading require training and practice to develop these skills. The spoken language is marked on paper using certain visual symbols. Each language has its own writing system. Most Indian languages are written exactly the way they are pronounced. But in English there is a constant lack of consistent relation between sound and spelling. The spelling of English has not undergone change since the fifteenth century as their pronunciation has. This makes getting a grip of English spelling more difficult. Constant exposure to the mother tongue enables the child to speak after a certain period of time. This natural process of acquisition is not the same in the case of a person who learns a second language. Moreover, the firm basis of the linguistic system of the second language interferes with the learning of the system of the second language. The learner of the second language must be provided with the adequate exposure to listen to the second language. Modern inventions like film, television, radio, and internet provide adequate exposure to this language. Careful listening of correct English from media or records will provide a good model for the learner. In the classroom it would be nice for the teacher to use familiar vocabulary while speaking, but also introduce words and vocabulary that are unfamiliar. Interaction with the students in English will help them come out of their shell. Eugene A. Mida in his paper ‘Selective Listening’ defines language as essentially a motor-auditory phenomenon which requires our auditory sensitiveness along with our capacity to assimilate things heard. ‘Selective listening’ implies certain features and concentrating attention on them. These features are phonetic features- namely the principal intonational characteristics, important consonants, vowels; this enables one to master the sound system of the language; vocabulary – learners must repeatedly listen to certain dialogues, speeches to become acquainted with the structural system of the language, morphology and syntax or grammar- the learner must first listen to common and simple structures of grammar and commit them to memory. The learner having listened to English adequately must try to communicate in English. Most of the lower income families or middle class families or in rural families, the learners are alone in their knowledge of English, their situation does not provide them with opportunities to practice communicating in English at home. In class there should be oral compositions, dramatizations of certain speech or dialogues to give students room for practice of the language. Reading to learn a language should at first be aimed at improvement of vocabulary, understanding of phonetics i.e. the sense of sound-letter correspondence, analysis of words and sentences. After the learner has had sufficient oral practices, they are initiated into writing, compositon, exercices that help in training the learner. When two or more language groups come in proximity to one another for any reason, there is a necessity to learn one another’s language. In ancient Rome, before the children were sent to school, the children were taught Greek, by living in direct contact with the language. Greek slaves were employed for this purpose. The Roman children learnt Greek and Roman simultaneously. This tradition of learning continued till the middle Ages when Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Latin became the language of good education. Latin was primarily learnt through imitation of a native speaker, but with the decline of Rome, Latin became a dead language. Grammar exercises and bilingual dictionary were used to teach Latin. With Renaissance, trade, commerce and social relationship increased. To meet this demand it was necessary to learn languages. The teachers exposed the learners to the language by talking to them about topics of everyday interest. The learners were then asked to reproduce the speech. The learners were then asked to memorize conversations and sentences. This method was far from perfection. It made extensive dependence on the learner’s memory, as well as included all the deficiency associated with the learner, limited vocabulary, limited linguistic sense. In the 16th and 18th century, educationists came up with certain methods to teach Latin, already a dead language. Roger Ascham in his book The School Master promoted the translation method. The teacher would read Cicero’s speeches in class and then translate them in English; the English version would be further translated into Latin. The original Latin text would then be compared to the translated one. William Bath (1664-1714) too stressed on translation method and gave importance to vocabulary. Michel de Montaigne (1535-1592) believed that the best way to teach a foreign language was to understand the mind of the people who use that language. He advocated travel as means to come into contact with the people whose language he is learning. Comenius (1592-1670) inspired by Bath produced a bilingual dictionary of eight thousand words. He also presented the learners with pictures, so that they might think and say. John Locke (1632-1740) supported the translation method. Lot of translations were printed one after another, this printed material was used to teach Latin. Later, influenced by Montaigne he advocated the natural method of exposing the learner to the language to be taught. Teaching of grammar was postponed until a certain proficiency in the language was obtained. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, grammar translation method became a popular method for teaching a foreign language. First, the meanings of the words are explained to the learner. The passage is read and then the passage is translated into the native language. The teacher then explains the grammar items in the mother tongue. Rules of grammar are well learnt and exercises based on grammar are solved. But this method is good for teaching a dead language. Learning a dead language is an intellectual discipline and is a key to the ancient literature. However, this method is not conducive to teaching a living language, because the learner remains passive. The works of educationists who advocated a direct contact with foreign language speakers in meaningful situations gave rise to the “Oral Method”, “Natural Method”, and “Phonetic Method” or “Direct Method” by the beginning of the 20th century. The central idea of direct method is the association of words and sentences with their meaning through demonstration, dramatization and such other means and not by the use of mother tongue. Suppose the lesson deals with the life of people in a foreign land. The class is shown a picture depicting a certain situation or activity of the foreign land. The picture illustrates a certain area of vocabulary. The teacher in the foreign language describes the picture to the learners; and then asks questions, then a reading passage is given and every word is explained. Then the attention of the learners is drawn to the structural pattern of the language. Otto Jespersen (1890-1945) in his book How to Teach a Foreign Language emphasized the primacy of speech and reading

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as the preliminaries of language study. He does not insist on teaching grammar formally, instead the learner should discover the facts of grammar after careful study. Twentieth century witnessed a need to communicate with others in a foreign language. This led to a growing need for language teaching which led to the foundation of “aural-oral approach”, “aural-linguistic approach” or ‘structural approach”. Language to them was speech, not writing. Written form is the graphic representation of speech and it is artificial. Language was considered to be a set of habits. A child acquires the language of his group just as he acquires the habits and customs of the group. So behaviour of the group and the cultural habits formed a part of language teaching. Language teaching is about language as spoken by the native, not its grammar. Classics formed the teaching material for language teaching, but the new approach used the colloquial language spoken by native speakers in different situations. In the modern method of language teaching, the listeners listen to the teacher and then learn by mimicry and memorization. The learners then can enter into dialogue into one another and even apply their own vocabulary. Repeated practice of such dialogues in groups will aid the learner to learn better. After several oral exercises, the learner should be introduced to printed materials and after he has attained a firm grip a firm grip on the structure, he can move on to reading. After mastering the basic structure of the language, the learner should be encouraged to express himself. It is believed that the English language has three hundred basic structures and if these structures are mastered, then the language is learnt. It was believed that the structural approach would solve the problems in teaching English as a second language. Many countries came under the influence. But the influence soon passed due to the lack of properly trained teachers. The Modern Language Association believes that a teacher should have proficiency in the four language skills- listening, speaking, reading and writing, ability to analyse the language, culture and professional preparation. A teacher must know what to teach and how to teach. In this respect, linguistics and psychology are essential to language teaching. A hurdle that teachers face when they teach a foreign language is the interference of the mother tongue of the learner. The teacher has to find out the cause for it and address the issue. The teacher will have to have an understanding of the mind of the student- the aptitude, attitude, interest, intelligence etc, to device a method that will enable the learner to learn better. This calls for creation of problematic situation where the learner is compelled to hit upon plans to solve the problem, so that learning may take place. A language is learnt not just for communication, but also for mental development along with emotional and moral development. A good language teacher will have to be aware of this aspect and understand the emotional and moral life of the students, to give them proper guidance. Psychology therefore helps the teacher to encourage the students and motivate interest. Psychology can therefore be said to be of great importance in designing method and technique. The issue of medium of instruction in schools is a complex one. Some support the introduction of English as the medium of instruction for all. The post-independence linguistic reality was that a large number of English medium schools were set up mostly in cities and large towns, but the village and remote areas continued to remain confined to their vernacular medium. Most often proficiency in English allowed doors to better and lucrative jobs, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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opportunities for higher education and a greater vertical mobility financially and socially. Educated only in vernacular medium, often students from rural areas face embarrassment and difficulty in pursuing higher education and better jobs. Their success comes to them after a great deal of struggle. This has resulted in a huge rural urban divide. Linguistic debates triggered apparently by nationalist concerns is a veiled attempt to keep the rural folk from being aware of their disadvantage, and to maintain a balance in terms of opportunity between rural and urban population. These contribute to gaining political mileage, because apparently nationalism and lack of knowledge of English go hand in hand. Also, this measure keeps a large section of people in the dark, thereby reestablishing the power of the privileged. However, there have been protests against such clever agenda. When the Left front government refused to introduce English at the primary level, open protests were made alleging that children of politicians would be educated in English medium schools, would go abroad (possibly to the United States of America- their ideological opponent) while the citizens deprived of exposure would be forcefully confined to their space with no hope of change in their environment. Common people are aware of the positive role of English in India. They realize that English is an important vehicle for gaining knowledge, national unity and promotion of international trade and commerce. English is the only language acceptable in South, understood in the East and West and connects the whole of India. One cannot wish away the importance of English in science and technology. Internet technology has further increased the exposure to English and communications on socializing websites are mostly done in English. For practical purposes in everyday life, English continues to be of far greater importance. Some are of the opinion that Hindi does not have the richness that English has. What can be conveyed in a single English sentence requires fifteen Hindi lines. English as a colonial power is a matter of the past. It is an international language and an Indian language and a window to the world. Knowing English broadens the horizon and increases experiences of the world. In terms of education, English is the most common aspect of all education. It has been a common binding factor in a diverse country like India. English is no one’s mother tongue, everybody is equal when it comes to learning it for different purposes. As early as in 1938, Raja Rao in his foreword to his novel Kanthapura, experimented with the novel, and made English take on the cadence of Kannada, with its rambling narrative tone, as spoken by the women of Kara district in Karnataka. The novel is one continuous narrative without any divisions into chapter or section. Raja Rao says that as long as thought continues, words flow, when thought stops, the words halt. He uses the form of a ‘sthalapurana’, to tell the history of a village caught up in the Gandhian movement as told by an old woman, thus subverting the usual generic expectations of the form of a West European novel. Even before post-modernism made its presence felt, Raja Rao integrated myth with history, realism with fabulation, linear narration with a cyclic notion of time. Raja Rao owns in his foreword “One has to convey in a language that is not one’s own the spirit that is one’s own. One has to convey the various shades and omissions of a certain thought movement that looks maltreated in an alien language. I use the word ‘alien’, yet English is not really an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up, like Sanskrit or Persian was before – but not of our emotional make up”. Raja Rao was the first to express and work out a strategy to negotiate the twin claims of language and culture. The premise that writing in English implies a betrayal to cultural values does not hold true. Writers, who write in English, do so because, no matter what language they speak in, they find their writing competence only in English. Indian writing in English which began in the 1930’s resulted in a Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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boom of publication of novels in English, which achieved widespread popularity. Literary works in English have not only found a global market place; but has come to be identified as essentially Indian. Aijaz Ahmed points out in â&#x20AC;&#x153;In Theoryâ&#x20AC;? that a new urban culture was developing for which literary documents produced in English is a national document. The regional works are considered minor and are easily forgotten. Although, English is not an Indian language, it has certainly become the language of literary sophistication. Demands of economy, trade, commerce, education, medical needs and removal of social inequality and thrust of social homogenization, necessitate the acceptance of English, the language of upward social mobility. Internet revolution has deepened the impact of English. It is spoken in many upper middle-class homes, words in English have percolated to the lower class of society- the vernacular equivalent of many English words are unknown to many- clothing, social kinship, entertainment are all being shaped by international exposure and hence English forms a part of everyday common jargon. This is an irreversible process, many might not be in favour and criticize the change, they might ask for public examinations to be in Hindi or do away with English aptitude test completely or argue in favour of Sanskrit, but the preferred language in all walks of life is English. Teaching English might not be that difficult after all. An eagerness to learn the language is evident everywhere, and few other infrastructural difficulties can be easily dealt with. Bibliography Ahmed, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. London, Verso, 1992; rpt Delhi: Oxford University Press. Aghnihotri, R.K, and A.K Khanna. Problematising English in India. A Research in Applied Linguistics, Vol.3. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1977. Mehrotra, Arun K. A Concise History of Indian Literature in English. Ranikhet: Permanent Black, 2008.

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Social and Community Structure of the Kumbhakaras in Bengal Dr. Surajit Rauth Assistant Teacher, Kuchut P. C. Institution, Vill- Kuchut, P. O. - Kuchut, District- Burdwan West Bengal, E-mail-surajit.rauth@gmail.com, ABSTRACT To understand the potters’ caste in its totality, we should know both its external and internal structures. The external structure of a caste means its social extensions built up into a number of discrete endogamous groups called sub-castes which are socially marked off from one another at the interactional level and yet in a linguistic region all such groups share a belief in common descent, common appellation and common traditional occupation. The internal structure of a caste, on the other hand, is made up of intrinsic norms and values that bind the sub-castes culturally at the attribution level. While the castes’ external structure elaborates the differences between the caste men at the societal level, its internal structure enforces a linkage between subcastes at the cultural level. Since caste is a socio-cultural system, both these structures need to be examined for a comprehensive study of any state.

Introduction The ethno-archaeological study of the ceramic industry was undertaken by us in the districts of North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur, Maldah, Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura and North 24 Parganas in West Bengal. The data collected in course of our study determine the social and community structure of the potters’ caste in Bengal. In West Bengal we find four major sub divisions of the potters’ caste. They are Rarhi, Varendri, Chourasi and Khottai. The potters of the first three groups living in Radha region as well as in the state consider them as the sons of Rudrapala and grandsons of Lord Mahadev. Whenever asked about their origin, the potters of Birbhum,Bankura as well as some old and experienced potters of Burdwan and Maldah informed me that the four sub castes of Bengal potters took birth from the four sons of the originating person Rudrapala. They maintain that the Rarhis from Kulananda,Varendris from Bhavananda, Chourasis from Binanda and the Khottai from Ananda respectively, as is attested by Harekrishna Mukhopadhyay. The areas or locality where these four groups spread themselves are reportedly Sripur, Burdwan, Koarpur, Kolegram, Haldi, Badgachhi, Korjona, Khorsona, Nilpur, Mandaron, Oain, Salimabad, Ambusthan, Muluk, Saptagram etc. It is important to note that a large number of said localities are fall under the jurisdiction of the district of Burdwan itself. The Chourasia potters of Rangri and Malikbaria, P.S.Asoke Nagar, district North 24 Pargana, and believe that the Chourasia are one of the four sons of Kshetrapal, who is the son of god Visvakarma, Other three sons being Rarhi, Varendri and Khottai. They also maintain that the potters of modern Bangladesh are the descendents of Rudrapala. The Chourasia sub caste is found in large numbers in the districts of Burdwan, North 24 Parganas and in East and West Midnapore in modern West Bengal. According to Risley the Chourasi were originally a branch of the Chandansara subcaste, who settled among the Daspara (both were sub-castes of Pabna district of modern Bangladesh), but were not admitted by them to equal social rights. When the Nawab of Murshidabad chanced to be travelling in that part of the country, they presented him a Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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number of artificial flowers and fruits made of clay. The imitation was so exact that in reward of their skill, the Nawab gave the settlers eighty four villages and permitted them to call themselves by the title Chourasi. From that time their social supremacy was secured, and they were able to impose upon the Daspara sub-caste, the condition that only those who admitted the superiority of the Chourasi should hold the title Paramanik; that those who served with pan at marriage and social ceremonies should be called Panpatra; and that those who still insisted on holding aloof should be regarded to the lowest rank under the designation Mujgarni. Risley mentions that Varendri kumars are descended from one of the sons of Rudrapala, who had forcible intercourse with his own sister. The potters of Murshidabad and Hooghley are also divided into two broad groups Varendri and Rarhi. In North 24 Pargana too, the potters of Chotto Bamania and Baluigachi Palpara informed the investigator that they belong to Varendri sub-caste and have migrated from the districts of Jessore and Khulna of modern Bangladesh. The Varendri potters have somewhat different rituals and customs from than that of the other two Bengali kumar castes. It is significant that, in West Bengal the percentage of migrated Bangladeshi potters in the state is substantial especially in the border districts of North and South Dinajpur, Maldah, North and South 24 Parganas. So far as historical geography is concerned; the Varendri or Varendra denoted the area which encompasses the districts of North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda of modern West Bengal and the districts of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Naogaon, Rajsahi and Bogura of modern Bangladesh. While surveying the potters dominated settlements in North and South Dinajpur and in Malda it has been learnt that 80% of the migrated potters living in the first two districts are from Rajsahi and Bogura (modern Bangladesh). From this point of view the pottersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; community living in these districts whether traditional or migrated, has been termed as the Varendri sub-caste of potters. It is more important to note that, all the Bangladeshi potters living in this region did not migrate from Dinajpur, Rajsahi and Bogura only but also from Pabna, Khulna and Jessore of modern Bangladesh as well and so all of them should not be considered as the Varendri sub-caste of potters. Not only in modern North Bengal, are the migrated potters widely distributed in erstwhile south Bengal too, especially in the districts of Burdwan and in North 24 Parganas. In the district of Burdwan the migrated Bangladeshi potters are substantial in number especially in the district head quarter, Burdwan town and in Dainhat (P.S.Katwa). Similarly in North 24 Parganas, the migrated Bangladeshi potters had been met with in a number of villages and in some semi- urban settlements. They formed various local communities in different parts of the district under different police stations. These potter groups are migrated from the districts of Jessore, Faridpur and Khulna of modern Bangladesh and have developed some different technological distinctiveness. Though these potters are from Bangladesh geographically they do not come under the Varendri group. Besides, the Bangladeshi potters are somewhat technologically different from the rest of the other potter groups. This is why they have been considered as a separate group of potters here and are being termed as Bangladeshi potters. External structure From region to region the potters are differentiated into several endogamous sub castes which are arranged in the hierarchy of commensal groups. So far as the caste structure Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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of the potters are concerned it is important to note that all the potter sub castes are not of common origin. As stated earlier, the Bengali sub-caste of kumors i.e. Rarhi, Varendri, Chourasi trace their origin from Rudrapala, while the Khottai ones pay a similar tribute to Kunwar, whom they regard as their ancestor. Now we should consider whether all these four potter groups of West Bengal ever belonged to a single group or not. The question is difficult enough, because the reply might invite differences of opinions. This is because there are some common features among all these potter groups but each one of them is distinct from the other especially in technological as well as in some social aspects. There are yet different categories of factors which socially and culturally establish a bondage among them. The common features among all these potter groups are as follows1.

All of them belong to Hinduism.

They believe in legendary origin.

All belong to potter caste group.

All are clean castes and occupy similar position in social hierarchy.

All are pottery (earthen ware) specialists and pottery making is their primary occupation.

Pots are thrown by male potters only on the spinning wheel.

Handmade pots are generally made by the women folk with help

All of them fire their pots either in kiln or in oven.

Use of slips before firing is a common practice among all four groups.

The different sub-castes of the potters have been formed on various considerations, largely on territorial and technological considerations. There are divisions also on the fact or fiction of origin, change in occupation, adherence to a particular sect, or even naming after some animals.28 TerritorialAs in India, so in West Bengal too, we may have a good number of potter sub castes named after the place of their origin. They should be termed as territorial. The endogamous subdivisions of the caste are varying from region to region or from district to district or even within a district. To begin with, not only in Bengal but in India as well, some of the names of the potter groups refer to the erstwhile â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;samanta rajyasâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, like Ajmer, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Marwar in Rajasthan from where Ajmeri, Jaipura, Jodhpura, Marwari trace their origin respectively. Some others claim their origin from places and regions of great antiquity, namely, the Brajabasi from Braja, the well known sacred residence of lord Krishna in U. P, the Gujaria from Gujarat, the Konnoujia from Kannuja, an imperial ancient city of the Gangetic doab. (It

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was the capital of king Harshavardhana in 7th cen. A. D. and of king Bhoja in 9th century A.D), the Maghaiya from Magadha in Bihar and Sorathia from Sourastra etc. Similarly, in West Bengal too, we have at least two sub-castes of potters Rarhi and Varendri owing their names from the territory of their origin. As stated earlier, there are four sub-castes of potters in West Bengal among which the Khottai are of non-Bengali origin and are sub-divided into two Konnoujia and Maghaiya. Rarhi is a geographical term derived from the erstwhile geographical region Rarha or Rarhadesha, which denoted a vast area encompassing the modern districts of Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura and parts of Murshidabad and Hugli. Almost all the rural potters living in these districts prefer to call them as Rarhi kumor or potter. In course of the present author’s survey in the potters dominated villages in the districts of Birbhum, Burdwan and Bankura, some potters furnished the information that they belong to Aarhi and some as Narisring subcaste of potters. It seems that Aarhi is a corrupted form of Rarhi. Besides, we know the existence of a village named Aarha or Aarhagram located between Muchipara-Shivpur bus roads (nearly 10 km from Durgapur Rly stn). There is also a Siva temple named as Rarheswar Siva, probably established by the ruler of Rarha, Iswar Ghosh. Harekrishna Mukhopadhyay has categorically mentioned that this Aarhagram bears the relics of Rarhapuri, the ancient capital of Rarha. Similarly, Narisring too, seems to be another corrupt form of the original word Rarhi. Sring is a corrupt form of Sreni, which denotes class or division. So this may be called that by Narisring, the potters of this region like to be known as belonging to Rarhi sub-caste. The potters of Jalpara, (P.S.Mongolkot), Dakhin Dihi, (P.S.Ketugram-1), Kumorpara (P.S.Kalna), Samaspur (P.S.Monteswar), and Chanduli (P.S.Katwa), of district Burdwan informed the surveyor that they belong to Aarhi sub caste of potters. On the other hand, the potters of Birutikuri (P.S.Burdwan), Ganphulia (P.S. Katwa) and Khajurdihi (P.S.Katwa) in the district of Burdwan prefer to call them as belong to Narisring sub-caste. There are a number of villages in the districts of Burdwan and Birbhum where the potters like to call themselves as ‘Gabakata kumor’. ‘Gaba’ means pit and ‘Kata’ denotes digging. So by ‘gabakata’ they mean the group of potters who dig pits to obtain clays for making pots. The potters of Rarha Bengal also told us that they take pride to be known as Ghatakar, Ghatkapar or Ghatakarpur which denotes the maker of ghats (pots to be used for worshipping). The census report of 1931 also confirms this. So far Varendri is concerned, there is again some sub divisions or sub castes among the potters group. Pradyut Ghosh divides the potters of Malda in four sub- castes as Bengali pal, Khotta pal, Paichha pal and Sankhari pal. But it has been learnt that the Khottai and the Paichha are one and the same group of potters. Both of these terms are applied to the Konnoujia and the Maghaiya group of potters. Paichha (Westerners) denotes the location of their original habitat i.e. the group of potters who came from the western side of the state of West Bengal. Besides this, by Bangali Pal he wished to mean the traditional potters of North Bengal, especially in the districts of North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and of Malda who are being referred here as Varendri group of potters. Not only in these vast two ancient geographical regions, have a number of sub-castes been prevalent throughout the undivided Bengal, which had their origin from the territory they lived in. In Dhaka for instance, we find five sub-divisions namely Bara Bhagiya, Chhoto Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Bhagiya, Rajmahalia, Khotta and Magi. The Bara Bhagiya kumors have separated into two divisions. The first descended from Tilak Pal; only make black utensils, the second sprung from Madhab Pal. The name of the sub-caste Rajmahalia too, named after the area of their origin. It is presumed that they came from Rajmahal with a member of the Banga Ahikari family, and having tarried in Dhaka for generations lost caste. Risley has confirmed the existence of another group of sub castes in Dhaka which had their territorial significance. The names of Chhoto Bhagiya, Bikram Puria, Jahangir Nagaria, Faitabajia, and Bhagaldas Puria may be recalled in this aspect. The last four names had a purely local significance. Jahangirnagar is the old name of Dhaka and its derivative is applied to the potters of the city. Faitabaj is the name of a pargana and Bhagaldaspur is a village in Bhopal. It appears that these groups are not invariably endogamous, and that intermarriage between them is not absolutely prohibited. Dr. Wise mentions that in the city of Dhaka the kumhars have two sub-divisionsâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;Islampuri and Bhagalpuri, after two quarters of the city where the potters chiefly resided. Similarly the four sub-castes of Noakhali are Bhulia, Saralia, Chatgainya and Sandwipa appear to be based on differences of original habitat. Accordingly in Pabna five sub-castes have been formed. They are Sirasthan, Majhasthan, Chandansara, Chourasi and Daspara. The first are believed to have come from the north-western provinces and are said to be descended from Premananda, the third son of the original potter Rudrapala. The Daspara are said to be descended from Kulananda, the eldest of Rudrapalaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sons. So far Chourasi are concerned I have mentioned it earlier. From the previous information furnished by Risley, it is clear that the traditions of taking names of sub-castes from original habitation area had been prevalent throughout Bengal as in India since ancient past. Besides the four sub-castes of potters in West Bengal or in Rarha Bengal mentioned above, there are references of some other divisions of sub-castes in the district of Bankura. Manik Lal Singha mentions some other divisions of the caste which took their names from the place of their origin. The sub-castes were chiefly concentrated in the district of Bankura or in the western part of Rarha Bengal. These are 1) Singhajari (The inhabitants of southern Bankura), 2) Bar Hazari (potters lived in the geographical tract lying between the northern banks of river Dwarkeswar and the southern bank of river Damodar), 3) Ganganya ( The potters lived in Garbeta area on the banks of river Shilai, in the district of Midnapore, deep Grey Ware had been unearthed from here), 4) Rajhati (The potters of Hariharpur living under P.S. Onda, in Rajhat and Virsinghapur areas on the banks of Dwarkeswar in Bankura). Besides those mentioned above, Singha holds that the potters of Rarha region have some other sub-divisions or sub castes too. These are (5) Gourha or Garha or Gobuya subcaste (The potters who migrated from north Bengal areas, specially from the district of Malda are belong to this sub-caste), (6) Sat Tapa (The potters lived in and around Dihar (excavated site) area on the north of the river Dwarkeswar and were settled in seven different taraf areas such as Rautara, Gamidya etc, are known as Sat Tapa group of potters) and Maghaiya of which mention have already been made. Singha also informs us that there were two different kinds of potters group in the western part of Rarha Bengal such as Bhera (carrier or porter of vessels) and Bajaria (one who goes to market) etc. It may be presumed that both of these groups did not manufacture Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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pots but engaged themselves in other related activities. It seems that while the first group used to engage them in selling of pots roaming through the villages, either in head load or by bullock cart, the latter only sold vessels in village huts or from their houses, purchasing them from the village potters who manufactured them regularly. This should be clearly stated that, these group of potters could not be met with that have been mentioned above, in the districts of Burdwan or in Birbhum except the Maghaiya ones. So it can easily be said that those group of sub-castes were existed only in the district of Bankura. So far as the Khotta or the non-Bengali group of potters in West Bengal is concerned mention should be made of two sub-castes, the Konnoujia and the Moghaiya as stated earlier. According to Risley, Khotta is a sub-caste of kumhars in Dhaka and Orissa who were supposed to have migrated from upper India. He also confirms that they are the debased kumars of Dhaka claim to belong to the Maghaiya potter family of Patna. Khotta kumars of these two sub castes is seen working throughout West Bengal though the degree of their concentration is not the same in all the districts. In north Bengal, as mentioned, the Khotta kumars or both, the Konnoujia and the Moghaiya group of potters have been met with. Special mention may be made of the Konnoujia potters of village Tilason and of Singhabad under P.S. Habibpur in the district of Malda. The potters of this village were migrated from the district of Balia, in Uttar Pradesh, nearly 200 years ago with the jamindar concerned, who settled in Bengal on the said village just by the river Punarbhava. The Khotta potters of North Bengal are known as Paichha or Paschima potters to the local Bengali potters. The term Paichha or Paschima indicates the direction from where the groups have migrated and are used as a blanket term for the two sub castes of Konnoujia and Maghaiya since both of the areas of their original habitation (Konnouj and Magadh) are to the western (paschim) side of West Bengal. So it should be noted that there is no sub caste in West Bengal named as Paichha or Paschima as some suggests. Similarly the word â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Pardesiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; denotes the foreigner or outsider i.e. the group of potters who migrated from outside the state. So by this term too, both the sub castes groups are mentioned. Pardesi is a generic term for all the north Indian potters, who are distinguished not only from the local Maharastrian potters but also from the Gujrati and Telangi. The Pardesi are thus a cluster of north Indian potter sub castes which include Gole, Konnoujia, and Chakvasia etc. Although they have not been able to give up their sub-caste differences, they commonly distinguish themselves from the south Indian, Maharastrian and Gujrati potters. Similar is the case with the Konnoujia and Maghaiya potters who are settled in West Bengal for several generations. The social differences between the Konnoujia and the Maghaiya potters are immaterial to a Bengali kumor or potter, since both of them are nonBengali and are migrated from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar respectively. But the terms Paichha, Paschima or Pardesi are so commonly referred to in north Bengal i.e. in the districts of North and South Dinajpur and Malda, that unless a full genealogical study is made of these groups or the researcher is confident enough to be specific, ambiguity is must to prevail. This is because both of these groups bear the same surname as Prajapati and Pandit. In Rarha Bengal especially in the district of Burdwan there is a large concentration of Khotta kumhars distributed in different locations in the district head quarter, Burdwan and in

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the Sub-divisions of Durgapur, and Asansol. Both of this group of potters is found in large number in Kolkata, Hooghly and in different parts of North 24 Parganas. The two sub castes of Konnoujia and Maghaiya have settled in Burdwan more than 100 years back. Both of the groups could not tell us the exact time of their first migration. But it is learnt that the migration increased during the last 50 years. As told, both of this group bears the surname of Prajapati and Pandit only in West Bengal. It is also learnt that all the Konnoujia potters living in and around Burdwan have migrated from in and around Banaras in Uttar Pradesh. On the other hand, the Moghaiya one, have migrated from various districts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They also informed that there are no sub castes of Gadhaiya or Surahiya in West Bengal as in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and in other north Indian states. It is very interesting to note that some of the Maghaiya as well as Konnoujia potters of Bengal have changed their surname from ‘Pandit’ or ‘Prajapati’ to ‘pal’. When enquired about this change they informed the investigator that the surname of Pal is a well known surname of the Bengali potters’ group irrespective of their sub caste, and it would help them to be recognized as a Bengali potter group. And once it is established that they belong to Bengali, it would facilitate to sell their product specially the ritualistic wares to the Bengali buyers group. The Bengali people as well as the tribals (Specially the Santhals) do not wish to buy these pots from a non-Bengali (Paichha) potter, which according to them would fail to maintain purity since they do not follow their customs and rituals. A detailed talk with two Khotta potters of Burdwan, Ramdulal Prajapati, (Konnoujia potter) and Gopal Pandit,(Maghaiya potter) reveals that they have changed their surnames, and assumed ‘pal’ in few years back. Similarly, some potters in Tilason, P.S. Habibpur, district Malda, have acquired the surname pal, quitting prajapati which is hereditary owned by them. Not only that, they have succeeded to enroll this new surname to their ration card as well as in Epic (voters’ Identity card) also. It is more significant that some of these families have already been able to collect their O.B.C. certificates with this surname. Each of the above potter groups which is an endogamous and conscious socio-cultural unit and is designated a distinctive prefix to the common caste appellation of ‘Kumbhakar’ or potter and whose members follow a particular combination of pottery techniques in pursuance of their hereditary occupation, may be termed as sub caste. Moreover, each of them has a traditional region of concentration with slight overlapping in adjacent regions. As for example, the Rarhi potters are found in Burdwan, Bankura and in Birbhum, the Chourasia are in Burdwan, North 24 Pargana and in Midnapore, the Varendri potters are mostly found in the districts of North and South Dinajpur, Malda, Jalpaiguri, Burdwan and in North 24 Parganas, the Khottai are found in North and South Dinajpur, Malda, Burdwan, North 24 Parganas and in Kolkata. Each of the potter sub castes mentioned above constitutes the largest endogamous unit for its members. Not only that, the socio-cultural unity of each of this group inherited a historical legacy. Hence conceptually a potter sub-caste with its cultural homogeneity is an interacting group. But in fact, an individual’s interaction never covers the whole of his subcaste population. His field of socio-cultural interaction is confined to a smaller population of his sub-caste. As such a sub caste is not a functional or rather operational entity, and it is not also organized into a compact whole because there is no mechanism at the sub caste level to regulate its norms in their application to the total of its members.

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Technological factorsWe may now examine how or to what extent technological variations are responsible to determine the categories of sub groups of the potters’ caste. (Kumbhakaras) The pottery technique of each potter group is unique in its own way. All the potter groups of the present study, like the Radhi, Chourasi, Varendri and Khottai have not derived their group nomenclatures from their respective pottery techniques, although the pottery techniques of each of them is distinct from the others. Not only in West Bengal, but also in India, the potters are socially divided on the basis of their technological variations. And before we discuss this aspect we should set up some criterion for this discussion in detail. Those are as follows— 1.

Pottery wheel type.

Types of vessels made by each group, and their functions.

Form of an unfinished pot when detached from the wheel.

The method of beating of unfinished pots during the process of beating.

Use of tools typology for beating of pots.

Use of moulds for manufacturing hand-modeled pots.

Process of preparation of slip and the mode of application.

Method of firing in kiln.

Firstly, it is well known to all of us that pottery is broadly divided into two typeswheel made and handmade or hand-modelled. In some parts of India the sub castes of potters are named after the field of their specialization in pottery making, i.e. whether wheel thrower or hand modeller. The names of sub castes such as Chakrasalvi, Chakere or Chakretia took their names from ‘Chak’ or potter’s wheel. Similarly, there are some groups who are known as Handakia, Harere, Hatere, Hathelia and Hathere, all derived from the corrupt forms of the word hath or hand. So the Chakrasalvis of Konkan and the Chakere or Chakretia of Madhyapradesh and Bundelkhand are of course wheel throwers. Accordingly, the Harere or Hathere of Bundelkhaond, Hatere or Thade of Srimur and Dehradun and the Hathelia of Benaras are those who do not employ wheel but manufacture pots only by the technique of hand modeling. It is not to be pointed out that all those who work on wheel do not form an endogamous group, nor do those who do not make use of it. Only those sections of potters who take such names as Chakere or Hathere are endogamous and distinct. But in West Bengal we do not find any such group of potters’ sub caste who take their name accordingly with the types of pottery or field of their specialization. As stated earlier, the potters of Bengal are divided broadly into four sub castes. Besides, there is a large section of migrated Bangladeshi potters who may be assigned as a separate group considering their technological variations. In West Bengal all these groups are wheel throwers as well as hand modelers, with some differences from district to district and even within a district. The Bangladeshi groups of potters too, follow both the methods. But with the progress of science and technology and introduction of light metal ware the use as well as sale of earthen ware Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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has been reduced sharply throughout the state. In the villages or settlements surveyed in seven districts in West Bengal it has been observed that almost in each of these settlements 10- 20% of total potter families are wheel throwers or employ their wheel to make vessels, in some villages the percentage is less than 10%, the rest either had left their ancestral craft or have been engaged themselves in hand modeling only. The traditional potters of Rarha Bengal or the Rarhi potters living in the district of Birbhum, Burdwan and Bankura use pivoted type of spoke wheel (wooden) through generations. Sporadic uses of bearing wheel and motor or electrical wheel by a few potters is reported from a few villages in these districts. But the percentage of the use of mechanical wheel among the Rarhi potters is 2 to 5% only. These groups of potters make all types of pots of big, medium and small sizes irrespective of their shape and usages. In some of the villages in this region it has been witnessed that some rural as well as urban potters use small type of socketed block wheel as an extra tool for making small ritualistic wares. In Rarha Bengal the Bangladeshi potters are mostly concentrated in the district of Burdwan. And almost 90% of Bangladeshi potters living in the district have shifted from their ancestral craft and are now engaged in making clay models, clay images, idols of gods and goddesses or clay rings and flower tubs. The only exception is found with the Bangladeshi potters living in Dainhat who manufacture vessels of various sizes on socketed spoke wheel. Besides, some potters of this category living in and around the town of Burdwan, work on electrical wheel. The Chourasia potters of Burdwan, Birbhum and of North 24 Paraganas use pivoted type of spoke wheel. But among them only the potters of North 24 Paraganas make vessels of large and medium sizes. The Chourasia of Rarha Bengal make generally small ritualistic pots, they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t manufacture big vessels for storing and cooking purposes. But exceptions are there also, some potters of this group under P.S. Bud Bud, district Burdwan make vessels of medium sizes for cooking purposes. So far as the wheel is concerned; there are variations among the Varendri potters living traditionally in North Bengal i.e. in the districts of North and South Dinajpur and of Malda. The traditional Varendri potters of Aiho, P.S. Habibpur, district Malda and the potters of Mahadipur, P.S. English Bazar of the same district use pivoted spoke wheel made of wood like the Rarhi ones. On the other hand, the Varendri potters of Gopalpur, P.S.Gangarampur, district South Dinajpur use socketed type of block wheel. An exception has been recorded from the Varendri potters of Pansumati P.S.Gangarampur, who use only socketed spoke wheel. The traditional Varendri potters make different types of wares of various purposes. On the contrary, most of the Bangladeshi potters make only decorative pots such as flower tubs and vases of different types and sizes, with the exception of the potters of Pansumati, who manufacture types of cooking and storing vessels of different sizes like the traditional ones. What is most significant in ceramic technology of Varendri region or in North Bengal is the maximum or frequent use of slow wheel. It is very important in the sense that Bangladeshi (migrated) Varendri potters have imported this technology from Bangladesh with them. Most of them have made these wheels from lathe machines on their plan. This theory is also implacable for the migrated Bangladeshi potters living in parts of North24 Paraganas. All these slow wheels which are run by hand, are innovative no doubt and also significant in the sense that the traditional potters of West Bengal, irrespective of sub castes, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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do not know the function of these tools rather have not seen them in working. Another important feature of Varendri potters is that, they most probably are the fore users of motor or electrical wheel. Whenever asked about the origin of mechanical tools, they told me that these were collected from Siliguri. So the information collected from the survey clearly shows that a migration of technology is being observed from east (Bangladesh) to west (W.B.) and from north (Varendri) to south (South Bengal). Besides, a large number of potters of the region are now engaged themselves in hand modeling only. The Bangladeshi potters living in various settlements in the district of North 24 Parganas also use socketed type of spoke wheel. Most of these potters have now engaged themselves in moulding clay models and images of Hindu god and goddesses, flower tubs, vases and plates, bowls and glasses etc. Among the Bangladeshi potters living in Baluigachi PalPara a section of potters who have migrated from Pabna and Jessore district of modern Bangladesh use a unique type of slow wheel.(By their womenfolk) They made beautiful vessels of medium and small sizes through this tool with rare skill and artistic acumen. Like the traditional wheel, only the rim, neck and shoulder portion of a vessel is made on this slow wheel and after that it required to be luted with an extra mass of clay through the process of beating on a terracotta mould. As mentioned earlier, the Khotta kumars of West Bengal are sub divided into two exogamous sub castes, namely Konnoujia and Maghaiya. According to both of these groups ‘Khotta’ literally means the wooden pivot (preferably made of tamarind wood) which is kept buried on ground and on which the socketed type of wheels are made to rest. Since both, the Konnoujia and the Maghaiya groups of potters use this type of wheel they are called so. These two groups of sub castes are found throughout the state from north Bengal to south Bengal. Broadly speaking, in north Bengal in the district of Malda both of these groups use socketed type of block wheel made of cement only. The size of this wheel is quite larger than the usual one used by other groups of sub castes in Bengal. But in south Bengal specially in the district of Burdwan, Hooghly, North 24 Parganas and in Kolkata they employ motor wheel or electrical wheel in a large scale, though a few of them work on small socketed type of cement wheel. The Konnoujia potters of Tilason, Malda, manufacture large vessels such as different types of Handi, Surahi etc. The rim, neck and shoulder portion of the vessels are made on wheel. On the other hand, the Konnoujia as well as the Maghaiya potters of south Bengal make only small pots such as cups for tea, small Bhandas, Ghats, plates, glasses, bowls etc. They don’t make large vessels. In some of the settlements in the district headquarter of Burdwan; both of these sub castes have established small cottage industries for producing small pots at a large scale to meet up the increasing demand of the town. These industries have been witnessed to employ 4 to 12 labours each to run them. The Khotta kumors of West Bengal are generally urban potters residing in town, cities or in suburban areas, though some exceptions have been recorded from North Bengal. The Rarhi potter throw wheel sitting in a squatting posture, but while turning the wheel they keep standing in slight leaning position. This group of sub caste manufactures only the rim, neck and shoulder of a vessel on wheel. They detach pots from wheel with a hole on its bottom. Extra clays are used for closing the whole as well as completing the vessel. At the time of beating they keep the wheel thrown pots on their lap, placing in between the left thigh and right foot. The use of maximum numbers of wooden and terracotta Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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beaters or Pitne and three to four types of stone or terracotta Bole indicate the variety of pots make by the Rarhi potters. The Rarhi potters have had a tradition to bake their vessels in two types of kiln, vertical (Gol Poan) and horizontal (Kulo Poan) type of kilns. At present they prefer vertical kiln, though there are variations in the shape and structure of the same from district to district and even within the district. Since they make a variety of pots, moulds made of terracotta in different size and shapes have also been witnessed in their houses. It has also been recorded that the rural potters of this sub caste use various sizes of pits (just like a wide mouth concave vessel) dug in the floor of their houses or workshops as moulds. Two types of slips are used by this group and both are applied one after another just 3-4 hour before firing takes place. So far the technological aspects are concerned the Chourasia sub caste of potters is not so different from that of the Rarhis. Since most of the potters of this group make small pots only, they use small size of pivoted spoke wheel only. The use of small socketed type of block wheel has also been recorded from a few places. These pots are thrown completely on wheel, so there remains no hole at the bottom of the pots and hence they require no beating for luting. So use of wooden or terracotta beaters are limited among them and are only confined to hand modeled pots only. The Chourasia throw wheel in squatting posture. Terracotta moulds of small sizes are generally used by this group to make medium size hand modeled pots. The Chourasia of Rarha Bengal prefer vertical kiln but the same sub-caste living in some settlements in North 24 Paraganas use horizontal types of kiln. They generally use one type of slip. As mentioned earlier, the Varendri potters of North Bengal detach vessels from wheel with a whole on its bottom. They too, use excess clay for closing the hole and to make a complete pot. Another important feature observed among the traditional Varendri potters is that they beat their pots on terracotta or cement moulds which are used as beating base i.e. they donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t keep vessels on their laps while beating like the Rarhi ones. Even while throwing they keep themselves in squatting position i.e. resting on folded legs. This group use kinds of wooden beaters and terracotta dabbers. Use of stone dabbers had not been found in surveyed areas. So far kiln is concerned; the Varendri potters generally fire vessels in horizontal type of kiln. This group use two or three types of slips, which they unearth as dry clays from fields. The process of making slips is somewhat different from than that of the Rarhi potters. They use catechu and Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHco3) for preparing this slip. As stated, the migrated Bangladeshi potters are spread all over West Bengal. It is significant to note that the Bangladeshi potters living in the state since the independence of India (1947) or Bangladesh (1971) or after that, are technologically superior than the traditional (urban or rural) potters of West Bengal. It is more important as well as interesting to record that the pottery manufacturing technology differs among these migrated potters too, from region to region, indicating the variations in technology in their original habitat, modern Bangladesh. Mentions have already made that while the potters of Pansumati, (P.S.Gangarampur, district South Dinajpur), who have migrated from Rajsahi and Rangpur during last 35- 40 years, use socketed type of spoke wheel, the potters of Kadihat (same P.S. and district) migrated from the district of Pabna use pivoted type of spoke wheel. The former group throw wheel stretching their legs on both sides of the wheel. On the other hand the potters who have migrated from the district of Jessore and Pabna and are now settled in various settlements in North 24 Parganas keep them squat while throwing. The Bangladeshi Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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potters detach their pots with a hole and use excess clay for luting. This group of potters use solid beating base, preferably the terracotta moulds at the time of beating pots. Types of wooden beaters and terracotta dabbers are recorded to be used by this group. The Bangladeshi groups of potters use two types of slips which are produced by mixing catechu and Sodium Bicarbonate with clean river water. The most important thing to be recorded here is that the migrated Bangladeshi potters surpass the traditional potters of West Bengal in the aspect of slow wheel. It is very interesting as well as beautiful to watch the use of an innovative type of slow wheel among the potters of Baluigachi Palpara, P.S. Asoke Nagar, district North 24 Parganas. Similarly the potters of South Dinajpur use different kinds of slow wheels for manufacturing various kinds of vessels of daily use as well as decorative items such as flower vases, tubs etc. A progressive attitude has been observed among this group which stimulates them to switch over to modern technology. They have already left traditional wooden wheel and made them acquainted with electrical paddle wheel which is more comfortable than the previous one. Again in case of ceramics they had turned their faces from manufacturing cooking and ritualistic wares rather have engaged them in making decorative items which are gaining currency recently not only in Bengal but in other states as well. The Konnoujia potters of Malda unlike the Konnoujia and Maghaiya of south Bengal make big vessels on big socketed block wheels. Pots are detached with holes at bottom and require series of beating to close the hole. The most significant feature to be recorded here is that the Konnoujia potters of Tilason, P.S.Habibpur, district Malda, donâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t use any extra mass of clay for closing the hole, rather stretches the thick mass of clay, (kept on the shoulder portion of the wheel thrown pots) with the heavy stroke of the beater and thus the hole closes. This technique is followed by the Oriya, Bathuli and Jhadua potters living in Orissa. This is a south and south western Orissa technique. The use of movable beating base is also seen to be used by them. Both sub caste of potters in North Bengal use heavy beaters and anvils of different sizes. They use horizontal type of kiln and apply one type of slip on vessels before firing. On the other hand the Khottai group of potters living in South Bengal makes only small pots on motor or electric wheel which produces complete pots and so require no beating. But the type of kiln used by the Konnoujia and Maghaiya potters of Burdwan is quite distinct with them. They use a type of cylindrical oven with enclosures. From the foregoing classification of the potter sub castes, it may be concluded that although caste has often been regarded as an occupational division of Hindu society, the formation of sub caste does not always seem to be determined on the basis of occupation. As the nomenclature of the potter sub castes suggests, even in one linguistic region; there has been no uniform rule for the formation of sub castes. It is likely that before these pottery making groups came into the fold of the caste which provided them a common appellation (Kumnhakaras Jati), they were already formed and known by different names in different regions of India, and that neither migration nor change in occupation could really alter the social status as the groups had already retained their identity by adhering to the old names. Therefore it follows that the kind of heterogeneity, which the above classification of potter sub castes has shown cannot be attributed to the caste system. Indeed what we call anthropologically a sub caste is not a division of caste in the manner a large group is divided

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into sub groups. As it is a sub-system within the structure of a caste, it is known as a sub caste. References Ancient India, Bulletin of the Archaeological Survey of India, no- 11,12, 1954-1955. Bandopadhyay Shekhar, - Caste, Occupation and Social mobility etc, 1994. Behura, Nab Kishore, Peasant Potters of Orissa, (New Delhi, 1978.), p. 21 Ghosh. A (edt),- An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology. (Vol 1, 2), 1989 Ghosh, Prodyut, Banglar Janajat, Vol. II, in Bengali, (Kolkata, 2007.), p. 45 Ghosh, Sibsankar, Gopebhumer Swarup, Oitihya o Sanskriti,(Calcutta, 2005.), pp. 121-122 Ghure, G. S, Caste, Class and Occupation, Bombay, 1961 Ghure, G. S., Caste and Race in India, Bombay- 1979. Hunter, W. W., A Statistical Account of Bengal, Burdwan , Reprint, Delhi- 1976 Mukhopadhyay, Harekrishna, Gour Vanga Sanskriti, In Bengali, (Calcutta, 1999.), pp. 110Poter, A. E., Census of India, 1931, Vol. 5, Bengal and Sikim, Part II. (Tables), (Calcutta, 1933), p. 356 Risley, H. H,- Tribes and Castes of Bengal, (Cal-1891), Reprint Cal -1981. (Vol- 1,2) Saraswati, Baidyanath, Pottery-Making Cultures and Indian Civilization, (New Delhi, 1979) p. 62 Singha, Maniklal, Rarher Jati o Kristi, Vol.III, in Bengali, (Bishnupur, 1982.), pp. 128-129 Sinha, B. P (edt),- Potteries in Ancient India,( Patna, 1969). Saraswati, Baidyanath and Behura, Naba Kishore, Pottery Technique in Peasant India, Anthropological Survey of India, Cal- 1966, reprint 2010.

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Defining “The Province” of Secularism in Nepal Vijay Prasad Jayshwal Teaching Assistant, Kathmandu School of Law, Nepal & Kathmandu School of Law Human Rights Clinic and Justice, E-mail: Vijayjayshwal1991@gmail.com ABSTRACT The first section of this paper will justify the lines of religions of state, its nature and its dominance. Natural phenomenon is not any more considered as phenomenon of divinity for which human beings has to surrender in front of super conscious bodies. Science and advancement is ordering the dissimilar and difference ideas and thought along with perception over the same matters. It is not time to argue the initial nature of universe or the theory of divinity vs. theory of secularity. Nepal is a country where religious indoctrination and its prevalence’s in politico-socio life was a thunder stone for marking the status. The society had practiced a long decade state sponsored distinction among different religious beliefs holding people which were overruled by people’s mandate and incorporation of “secularism” as non amendable, basic structure of Interim Constitution by the previous parliamentarian. The Montevideo Convention has defined state in four terms of four basic ingredients such as Territory, Population, Sovereignty and Government. These four things don’t require any religious priority to rule and or to be ruled by each others. This proves the intangible nature of state which is considered as sometimes “abstract” in social sciences. History had witnessed that humanity had fought for 30 years bloody destructive religious war which was concluded by signing on Treaty of Westphalia which ignores the superiority of Church over State which was intrinsically part of parcel of European Society. Nepal exhibits such visible notion but was not less than Western orientation and development. Hindu’s majority were condemning the other religious minority which is being proved by allocation of certain percentage of budget for the religious maintenance and scrutiny. The second section of this paper will describe the current debate of secularism in Constituent Assembly (CA) and condemnation by other political parties to amend the constitution in order to establish pre Hindu State which was legitimized by 1990’s Constitution and rooted out by 2006 Interim Constitution through people’s movement. Nepal is in on historic time when countries are framing its constitution via second elected CA members or parliamentarians. There are hope along with unavoidable challenges, constraints, ups and downs, pressure, mandate and so and so. Despite the fact of political instability and turbulence, the constitution making or drafting process is very satisfactory for law students if content and durability is concern. There are various issues which is still as it was with previous CA but meeting points are coming day by day. Nepal CA has hard time for almost some of pertinent issues for that defining province is very crucial. Among them, defining the province of “secularism” is tough and meaningful due to RPP (RASTRIYA PRAJATANTRIK PARTY, King’s Party) is associated with previous Monarchy and arguing for revival of monarchy in Nepal which is 4th largest party in this CA. The last sections of this paper will analyses and conclude with some remarks.

Key Words: Province, Secularism, Defining, Constitution and Norms. Inception of Debate of Secularism The social dynamics and structure of Nepalese society is very define and hierarchal in orientation. This whole region is being divided into three sub regions which are very distinctive to each other. The Southern side of this country is closest to India which has visible impact on social life and there is rapid cultural exchange due to open border with these two countries. The Northern side is associated with Tibet although not open but there is Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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cross border influence over the pattern of life. The caste system is inalienable feature of Nepalese society which has maintained the status of almost all influencing each steps of life and development. This was a country when somebody becomes King and someone beggar just by taking born is certain caste and certain creed. The varying inception of the term ‘Nepal’ was referred with the religious Hindu saints called, Ne Muni. This whole plain land from Indian River to Himalayan was considered as the Places of Devtas and Devies in the mythological scripture which is being further supported by the historians and their writings. Although, Nepal word comes from the Sanskrit scripture which is for the Aryans or Hindu civilization was never been limited to the one group of people. It was country or principalities of multicultural, multi religions, multi civilization and multi identical people living in the environment of cohesion. Nepal a country never became the settlement like the Western world where one group of people has always majoritarianism and dominance. Since, there is no contrasting opinion regarding the varying nature of governance in the early days of this country. It was divided into many such principalities which can be considered similar to structure of Greek City state or ancient Rome but not exactly in their arrangements. Nepal is being ruled by number of dynasties in different parts of the country until unification took place by father of Nation called, “Prithivi Naryan Shaha”. As per historians and recorded facts in the forms of archeological evidences Gopals were first dynasties to rule the nation followed by Mahispal, Kirat, Licchivi, Mallas and Shaha with long span of time. It shows that Nepal had practiced monarchical form of government since vary inception or hegemony. Although these different dynasties shares somehow similar character but had practiced different modes of ruling. Nepal initial dynasties had given more preferences to the religious texts because the modern form of governance was not introduced at that period which seems similar with the Ancient Roman empire, ruling of religious authorities over the state but it was absent in Nepal. There was not two separate entities in Nepal from vary early rulings even in the modern development when country is united. State and religious authorities were not independent to each other but were working together as vibrant bridge between the people’s and dynasties or ruler. Religious authorities were a merely a means or an instrument to facilitate the governing process and systems. It shows a presence if cohesive environment in respect of religious and state authorities. Historians had said that dynasties had given the religious scriptures or texts as a legitimate source for ruling and those texts were considered as sacred and pure like modern constitution in the countries. The differences and the disputes over the religious texts interpretation were being concluded by the religious experts or Pundits which shall promote social cohesion and justice. Although, the religious texts was often cited for resolving the disputes was being never imposed on other religious believers or religious communities. So, it was hard time for the historians to give precise religious texts for ruling. They often cited the ManuSmirities, Naradsimirites, Brishpeti smirities, Kautilya’s Arthastra or similar kinds of texts. Since these texts were authoritative for ruling had never invited any religious conflicts as we had seen the European powers like Church V State which was ended with Westphalia Treaty (1648) which created separation wall between State and Church. It had invited the Western notion of secularism in their world. Religious agencies were influencing and dominating the state functionaries or agencies but that was never had happened in our Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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part of world and specific to Nepal. Nepal had never been colonized either by exterior forces of empire or by any one religious groups. So Nepal never felt to distinguish these two institutions as state and religious authorities because two institutions were not in existence like westerns’ do have. The conception of secularism is being perceived differently by different people, colored with various inks, had created illusion regarding actual ideas with frequent change of notion. This is always considered sometimes political agendas and sole responsibilities of political scientist but not limited to it only. For instances, the manifestations of separation of church and state in the U.S. constitution is considered as one way of understanding of secularism. The founding fathers like James Madison and Thomas Jefferson had inserted the State- Church separation. The first amendment of the U.S. Constitution has guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press and assembly. The first portion of the first amendment reads, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof”. This clause is often call “establishment clause” by judges, attorneys and legal scholar. If the literal interpretation applies to this clause, then Congress shall make no laws establishing single religions as means of governance which inherits the essence of secularism. It prohibits the interferences of state with the religious matters. Similarly, the second of the religious clause – Congress shall make no law…prohibiting the free exercise of religion is often called, the Free Exercise clause. This portion of U.S. Constitution guarantees the right to freely exercise of religions of his or her choice without undue government interference and is what U.S. constitution is renowned for. The similar instances is with the Constitution of Bangladeshi (1971) when preamble has inserted the secular nature of country but has said in 2A, the state religion of the Republic is Islam but the state shall ensure equal status and equal right in the practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Christians and other religions. There is argument saying that Bangladesh lacks the essence of Secularism because constitution is promoting Islam and for which there is Ministry of Religion which has mandate for the allocation of budget for Hajj in Arabia. This is the Western notion that State shall have no religions to be a secular nation but the country having both secular and non secular character interpret the concept differently than the Western people because the judgment of one culture or practices on standing on the foots of other culture is not logical. The Indian Constitution inserts the secularism as one essential element of governance. The current government or called BJP government is facing huge criticism for the condemnation of secular characteristic of constitution due to its inclination with the Hindu fundamentalist. Furthermore, Indian constitution guarantees the “Free Exercise Clause” as U.S. Constitution inhibits. These three different above described examples are reflecting three different notion of same conceptions. Secularism is always being perceived as a “conception” not as an objectivity or objective phenomenon. Since, it is a conception only so there are different opinion and different forms developed through different course of time with witnessing different course of actions. Western’s do have different historical establishment regarding the religions and its relations with the political underpinnings than our part of world. It means the western foots can’t define and test the justifiability of secularism, their norms to us. Nepal’s secularism may do have unique featuring than the others.

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The varying conceptions of secularism has two folded thesis like no state sponsored or state favored religions and other no state funding or religious aid to one religious groups or community but to respect equal for all religious groups. The varying philosophical establishment of the Hindu Philosophy is that “Sarva-Dharma- Sambhava” (request for all religion). This notion reflects on plurality of religions and equal values to all. The 42th amendments of Indian Constitution (1950) in 1976 have inserted the word SECULAR in the preamble. From article 25 to 28 described, “Right to freedom or religion”. Secularism has become non- amendable basic structure of constitution through Arun Roy V Union of India (2002) 75 SCC368. The essence of Indian secularism is non- discrimination of the state on the basis of religious differences. There are some states out of 28 in Indian federal structure in which state has authority over the personal matter related to the religious practices. There are specific anti-conversion legislation which condemns any forms of conversion whether by willful or coercion inside that state which seems in contravention to the “free exercise clause” of Indian constitution. Such as in State of Gujarat, the Anti- Conversion Act (2000) has narrowed down the Article 25 of Indian constitution which is against the constitutionalism of Indian constitution. This is very general comment from the academic perspective on the basic tenants of Secularism. The way Indian Jurisprudence relating to secularism defines its content is not the similar with other countries which proves secularism is not merely as legal question but is covered with lots of political dynamics. Fundamental of Secularism in Nepal •

The vary conception of Nepali society was very secular, caste bonds were not very rigid, inter-caste marriages were frequent, and religious tolerance was very high. This was proven through number of instances among the different religious communities. There is no any such recorded events which had disharmonized the social fabric of Nepalese societies. The secularism is not only perceived limited with the black letter text but is expected to be practiced in day to day life. There was no any ban on any religious groups even to the minority since this country exists. The social harmony and co-existence was largely practiced in various parts of the country which has smoothened the religious tolerance and religious harmony.

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The formal declaration of Nepal in 2006, G.P. Koirala, younger brother of B.P. Koirala, announced that Hindu Nepal “would henceforth be a secular” country, but chose not to define the new parameters for the relation between state and religion. There are certain announcements or proclamation without defining its scope doesn’t make any difference to have or to not have. The constitutional experts argue that insertion of any ideas in the constitution needs to be defined, must be clear, must give one meaning and without any ambiguous. Nepal is declared as secular country which is inserted in preamble of the Interim Constitution and considered as non-amendable basic structure of Nepalese constitutionalism. This idea is still virgin and raw which needs to be institutionalized and strengthened more because the very notion of secularism establishes the interrelation of individual with the state for which larger percentage of budget are expended. There are two pertinent questions regarding the issues of secularism in Nepal. First, is secularism was mandate of people’s revolution? And if the notion of secularism can be inserted through amendment of the constitution then why is it considered as basic structure today or non-amendable feature of the constitution? These two questions are still looking for satisfactory answer which can have well convincing answers.

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•

Dr. Johanna Buss, Assistant Professor at University of Vienna says that the concept of a secular state seems to be a central issue for framing the notion of a modern, democratic state in South Asia. Anyhow, as ideals of secularism were formulated alongside the development of the modern Western state against the background of Christian cultural imprint, it could be argued that the whole project of modernizing and secularization is undergoing a different development in South Asia. Can a country be religiously influenced with one religion and still argues about the modernity? As Charles Taylor and others have put it the post-secular debate shows: modernity does not necessarily mean the disappearance of religions from the stately sphere. The geo-political situation of Nepal is very unique in that sense that two neighboring state is already secular since time immoral. China doesn’t speak any things related with religion while Indian Constitution has very strong standing on the issues of religion. It was only one Hindu kingdom in the world which was abolished only seven years ago and Nepal declared a secular, democratic state.

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There is urgency to introduce a common civil code which can rule the countries. Nepal is never being ruled with the personal laws for the very specific communities and was practicing the national code. The content of the laws in the past were largely influenced and inherit its legitimacy of sources in the Hindu texts which should be nullified to implement the notion of secularism. This is one of challenging task for the legal expert to introduce new legal code which shall have secular characteristic to avoid any biasness to the particular religious groups. This country is being ruled with one national code which is perceived as being influenced with the Hindu religious writing. Since country is already declared as secular then it is very illogical to keep the same old text or laws to rule the other religious minority’s communities.

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The declaration of Nepal as a secular countries has challenged older traditional festivities have already been threatened because those traditions were surviving on the grants provided by the state but once the constitution is made on the secular line, the government is not bound to provide that grant and the festivals that were dependent on the state would slowly disappear. Is this positive contribution of declaring country as a secular nation? Or the country is losing her cultural assets. The country do not have sufficient amount of granaries or treasurer to fund each religious groups as it was done in the past. The nation is heading with bad times when the remittance is becoming sole means of survival of national economy. The foreign companies are establishing their hegemony in the market while domestic companies are not in stand to compete with them. The government is not focusing on this part while religious matters are taking all the concentration of the government. It is very rational to boycott all the religious expenditure from the government fund. It must be limited with the individual’s sphere not to the public. There must be such scheme which can protect any religious groups from extinct.

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Another fundamental of Secularism in Nepal are to introduce the secular nature of education system. School curriculums need to be revised on the basis of secular principles. Traditional cultural and moral values from the curriculum need to be removed. The students must be freed with any religious values or be guided without them. It affects the providence of value education in the society. It also tries to define the province of secularism in the educational system where the government and private sector do have huge investment with a hope to change the nation. Nepal is very young country to outer world because it became open in aftermath of 1980’s only which dragged lots of

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information of outer world. It is considered as very close with rudimentary form of ruling with her own religious system. •

Similarly the state will have to bear the burden of providing holidays to each religious community according to their traditions and festivals. A state which has hundreds of ethnic communities and several religious traditions will be spending more time in religious festivals and additional holidays. This will certainly impact official works of the state. Almost all the rituals of Newari festivals are somehow connected with the head of the state, particularly with the kings in the past. The presence of the king or the president is required while initiating the annual worship of their gods and goddesses. It is yet to be seen what happens if a Muslim or a Christian becomes the president of this country. People of different religious communities will lose the privileges that they have been receiving till now. The state shall have to be neutral in regards of any religious affairs of any communities which seem very unrealistic and idealistic. The criticism has already been rumored with the people related to passive observance of the current government with the religious affairs. There are some instances whereby the state officials had been engaged in the religious celebration of some communities under official duties with state fund which violates the essence of secularism. Will it make any difference to the people when the state official will act accordingly similar to past although the country is declared as secular?

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Nepal is not declared a secular country under the whims or under pressure or under influence of any other nation but it is required to be. This country had history of tolerance, co-existence, friendliness, co-operation and brother and sisterhood and many more. The country is rapidly modernizing, small religious communities is accelerating their numbers which may invites religious confrontation if nation fails to accommodate changing reality of people and continue its old system of ruling. The new ideas are coming forward, people have hoped to live, country is making progress, and optimism is developing. The religion shouldn’t be the issues of confrontation which may remind the European religious war. This country can’t survive for long time if it fails under the grip of religious differences because we are seeing similar events occurring in the world. Nepal is such a place which has given birth to two different civilizations to the world. Buddhism has given lesson of peace and non-violence to the world while Hinduism has brought world is a family where “You are because I am and I am because you are” notion.

Conclusion Secularism is very loose concept in academic sphere which is being further diluted with multiple interpretations by the scholar. The academic debate has synchronized with three basic questions related to the secularism which is relevant for Nepal too. The question of relation of individual with the state, the relation of state with another state and relation of different legislation which helps to implement the spirits of secularism are pertaining to be resolved before finalizing the matter with the constitution. The various look to the secularism made bit easier to apply any of the model which is suitable to country specific. The cross cultural harmony is another issue which may be hampered through secular notion of country such as certain religious minorities need state fund to continue their religious ceremony while others not which helps for maintenance of communal feelings. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Although, the secularism is not perceived as anti-communal feeling but there are instances whereby this vary concept turned into anti-communal. The secularism debate has gained the height of national debate and today it has became non-amendable structure of the constitution. This has somehow helped to define the province of secularism in Nepal. Hence, it is required to implement the norms of secularism in Nepal. References Frank Thomas M., “Democracy, Legitimacy and the Rule of Law” published in New York University School of Law-1999(collected by Kathmandu School of Law for 7th ESDR school) page-01,par-01,lin-01 Jha Ganesh Kumar ,” How to Bridge the Professed Gap between Different Religions- A common Man’s Guideline” Published By G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology-2012,page-103,para-05, line-28 Human Rights and Prisons , “ A compilation of international human rights instruments concerning the administration of Justice” published by OffICE OF THE UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONS FOR HUMAN RIGHTS-2005 Kashyap Dr. Shivendra Kumar, Awadesh Pathak and Gaurav Papnai “ Saving Humanity ( Swami Vivekananda Perspective)” published by G.B.Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantanagar ( Uttaranchal), 1st edit-2012, apge-234, par-01-line 01 Nowak Mr. Manfred( Director of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Human Rights at the University of Vienna and United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture, with contributions from Mr.Jeoren Klok( OHCHR) and Ms. Ingeborg Schwarz( IPU) , “ Human Rights ( Handbook for Parliamentarians)”published By OHCHR ,2005,page-01,par1-01,line-04 Sangroula Dr, Yubraj, “Concepts and Evolution of Human Rights: Nepalese Perspective” published by Kathmandu school of law, 1st edit-2005page-89, para-o1-line-01, Yadav Dr.Birendra, “ Human Rights and Peace In Nepal ( An internet movement)”, published by Madhesh Foundation for Peace and development-2007, 1st edit,page-o1-paro1,line-01 Balchandra Sharma, “Nepalko Aitihasik Ruprekha”, Banaras: Krishna Kumari Devi, 1951, p. 162 John Whelpton, “A History of Nepal”, Noida: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 29. L.F.Stiller, “The Rise of the House of Gorkha”, Kathmandu: HRD, 1995, p. 127. HMG, “Shree Panch Surendra Bikram Shahdevka Sashan Kalma Baneko Muluki Ain” Kathmandu: Kanun Kitab Byabastha Samiti, 2022 B.S., p. 379. Michael Hutt, “Nepal in the Nineties: Version of the Past, Visions of the Future”, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 36-37. The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal, 1990, p. 1

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T. S. Eliot: The Idea of a Perfect Critic Chinmoy Dey Research Scholar, Department of English, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, District - Nadia, West Bengal, India, E-mail: chinmoydey.eng@gmail.com ABSTRACT In “The Perfect Critic”, the opening essay of The Sacred Wood, Eliot writes that like creation, criticism must also be an impersonal discipline. The critic must not be distracted by personal emotions from objective contemplation of the work of art. The end of aesthetic enjoyment is disinterested contemplation. Eliot rates Aristotle the best of classical critics and Remy de Gourmont the best of all modern critics. Eliot calls Coleridge the greatest of English critics and puts Arnold next to him. For Eliot, English criticism, since Arnold, has followed two trajectories: aesthetic criticism and philosophical criticism, both of which are defective. Eliot cites Arthur Symons as the chief exponent of aesthetic criticism. He prefers Swinburne to Symons as a critic because the former constructs his personal impressions into impersonal laws. Of Swinburne’s drawbacks, Eliot says that he is more an appreciator than a critic. Good criticism, for Eliot, is a “development of sensibility”; bad criticism is “an expression of emotion”.

Key Words: Personal, Impersonal, Impressionistic, Aesthetic, Philosophical, Sensibility Eliot theorizes about the art of criticism in “The Perfect Critic” (1920), which is the opening essay of “The Sacred Wood”. In this essay, Eliot writes that the true critic will try to build up his personal subjective impressions into laws by referring them to principles, and thus moving away from mere impressionism towards objectivity. Aristotle is, for Eliot, the classic instance of such critical power, and of “all modern critics”, he writes, “perhaps Remy de Gourmont had most of the general intelligence of Aristotle”(11). Criticism is a subtle mental operation which is difficult to define, but of which it is possible to lay down the process, as Eliot has done. For Eliot, the critic must not be distracted by personal emotions from objective contemplation of the work of art. Like creation, criticism must also be an impersonal discipline. The critic is to receive impressions, analyze them and then construct laws which are descriptive and permanently elucidative. Criticism, for Eliot, is a training of the sensibility which discriminates and responds. It is an intellectually organized structure, not a formless tidal wave of emotion. Eliot explicitly states that criticism must approximate the condition of the vision “amor intellectualis Dei”, that is, the intellectual love of God. The end of aesthetic enjoyment is disinterested contemplation, and poetry does not ‘improve’ us as Shelley thought, but it gives us a unique enjoyment, analogically like the love of God. At the beginning of first section, Eliot calls Coleridge “perhaps the greatest of English critics, and in a sense the last”(1), and puts Arnold next to him. He runs down Arnold for being “rather a propagandist for criticism than a critic, a popularizer, rather than a creator of ideas”(1). Arnold’s importance lies in his emphasis on a culture comprising the whole of Europe, in his unremitting war against the chronic insularity of the English philosophers. He was the first to draw their attention to the fact that an assimilation of Continental literature is essential to develop a sensitive critical faculty. That is why Eliot says that so long as England remains culturally isolated from the Continent, Arnold’s work will serve as a bridge across the channel, and it will always have been good sense”(1). Compared to Continental literature, English literature still remains largely insular and partisan. Eliot says that since Arnold Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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English criticism has followed two directions: aesthetic or impressionistic criticism and abstract or philosophical criticism with vague suggestions of scientific vocabulary, both of which are defective critical writing. Eliot discusses each with reference to particular critics and deals with the former type first. Arthur Symons is in the tradition of Pater and partly of Swinburne, and, according to Eliot, he is the chief representative of impressionistic criticism. His criticism exhibits like a photographic plate a faithful record of the impression, more numerous and more refined than ours, upon a mind which is extraordinarily sensitive. Unfortunately, this record also becomes an interpretation for it must itself impose impressions upon us, “and these impressions are as much created as transmitted by the criticism” (3). It is this outflow of unsatisfied creative energy into criticism which makes the ‘imperfect critic’. As an example Eliot takes Symons’ essay on Antony and Cleopatra. The critic constantly recounts and comments upon the impressions he has received in his reading of the play. In short, Symons retells Shakespeare for us. At this point, Pradip Bhattacharya argues: “Eliot explains that Symons’ essay seems to resemble this ‘Tales Retold’ sort of book because we already have our own impressions about the play, and another person’s impressions, however refined they might be, never seem very significant or attractive to us”(75). If we read what Symons has written on something with which we are not acquainted at all, and have had, therefore, no opportunity to have impressions about, we shall find that this writing often comes as a revelation. Thus, there is his ‘The Symbolist Movement in Literature’ which introduced the French symbolist poets to the English. And yet, when one reads the poet for oneself, they find that their impressions might be differing from Symons’. The book, therefore, has no permanent value for such a reader. In Symons’ literary criticism his unfulfilled creative impulse mingles and modifies the impressions he receives from a work of art or the emotions that are aroused by it. He does not faithfully record his impressions; he analyses and constructs, and thus creates something else. Swinburne, on the other hand, may not be an intellectual critic, but he is definitely not satisfying his creative urge in his criticism. He is trying to construct his personal impressions into impersonal laws because his creative impulse has been adequately expressed in his poetry. In his literary criticism Swinburne criticizes, expounds and arranges, and does not interpret or translate. In a true artist the personal impressions aroused by a work of art are fused with those from his multitudinous experiences in order to produce a new object no longer purely personal because it is a work of art itself. Swinburne, whatever his faults as a critic, is certainly to be preferred to Symons because his impressions are fully expressed in his verse, while in his prose he set about building these impressions into impersonal laws; a process in which his creative instinct does not interfere as it has already been satisfied. In another significant essay entitled “Imperfect Critics” Eliot argues that Swinburne deserves special mention as both a poet and a critic. The reasons are twofold: first, Eliot was deeply influenced by the Jacobeans; hence he has a partiality for Swinburne, also an admirer of the same poets and dramatists; secondly, Eliot was passionate about the nature of poetic language and in Swinburne he found an excellent subject because his poetry is purely verbal. Swinburne is a more reliable guide to the Jacobeans than any of the Romantics because he read everything with the sole intention of finding literature. Lamb’s erratic taste gets him to reject passages whose sentiments are uncongenial to him. Hazlitt’s criticism lacks a focus, and he is overrated as a critic. Coleridge leaves out too many of the major dramatists and lacks thorough knowledge of the plays. Swinburne, however, shows a balanced evaluation. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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He is the only critic before the 20th century to have been genuinely interested in Chapman who is being closely studied now-a-days. Of Swinburne’s drawbacks Eliot says that though his judgment is generally sound and his taste sensitive and discriminating, he remains an appreciator, not a critic. Criticism involves analysis, i.e., exploration from a definite point of view, an intellectual path of enquiry proceeding to certain definite conclusions. But Swinburne is far too idle and impatient to do this. Hence he provides only an introduction to Jacobean drama, not an exhaustive treatment of it. This laziness and impatience of Swinburne’s mind are revealed in his undisciplined, tumultuous prose style. He always gets carried away by his enthusiasm for language, and tends to talk in terms of superlatives. He does not bother to show how Massenger’s style is “more serviceable” than that of any other contemporary dramatist. The second section of “The Perfect Critic” deals with the abstract, general type of criticism unnecessarily using scientific vocabulary. This section starts with an epigraph that reads in translation: “The writer of the abstract style is nearly always a sentimental, at least a sensitive mind. The artistic writer is almost never a sentimental and very seldom a sensitive man”(6-7). Abstract criticism consists in the transference of various scientific concepts to literature, thus offering a wrong systematization. This is nothing less than the debasement of language because words are used not to convey a precise meaning but to evoke a vague emotion. The whole process merely suspends intellectual enquiry. The ideal language of criticism should be neither sentimental nor sensory. There are three types of minds: the abstract (Kant), the concrete (Dr. Johnson), and the philosophic (in the derogatory sense). The verbal mind jargonizes; the philosophic is not concerned with metaphysical enquiry but only with metaphysical terminology. Here Eliot is sharing in the reaction against the current trend of philosophy of his time. Hegel, for instance, treats emotions as concrete objects, forgetting that an emotion has no independent existence as ideas have. Pradip Bhattacharya observes: “what Eliot is doing is to warn us away from our personal, emotionalized, elevated concepts about poetry”(78). The reason behind the debasement of language lies in the vast amount of information which has accumulated in all fields of knowledge. As a result, everyone knows just a little bit about everything as there is so much to know. Consequently, talk tends to become vague and indefinite. The fact that when we do not know enough we tend replace definite ideas by nebulous emotions, and the sentence written by a distinguished contemporary critic that “poetry is the most highly organized form of intellectual activity”(1) is a case in point. This particular critic is simply expressing his own emotion about ‘poetry’, instead of perceiving what exactly poetry is. Eliot is right when he says that “Not only all knowledge, but all feeling, is in perception”(8). The sentence cited above can be contrasted with the opening sentence of Aristotle’s “Posterior Analytics” to understand what Eliot is criticizing: “All instruction given or received by way of argument proceeds from pre-existent knowledge”. Each word of this sentence conveys a precise idea; there is absolutely nothing nebulous about it, and no use of pseudo-scientific jargon. Aristotle is for Eliot the perfect critic who has suffered by being misrepresented dogmatically by his secretaries, not so much by his disciples. The moment Aristotle is regarded as a critic laying down laws from which there can be no appeal, his utility vanishes. He was a man of universal intelligence, who could apply his intelligence to almost everything under the sun. Aristotle is an example of a free intelligence applied to criticism. Bertrand Russell’s pronouncements on politics are an excellent example of what happens with a nonContemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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universal intelligence when it applies itself to subjects with which it is not familiar, or, rather, which are not congenial to its genius. Such people, says Eliot, are likely to “use art, in fact, as the outlet for the egotism which is suppressed in (their) own speciality” (9). Aristotle having no such impure desires to satisfy “in whatever sphere of interest, he looked solely and steadfastly at the object… he provides an eternal example… of intelligence itself swiftly operating the analysis of sensation to the point of principle and definition”(9). Horace, not Aristotle, had been the model for criticism up to the 19th century. Horace, Boileau and Pope lay down rules based on a limited foundation, and products of an unfinished analysis. The basis of Aristotle’s study was not his preconceived notions about art, but his vivid, sharply realized actual impressions. Aristotle lays down or rather discovers what is necessary for the poet and the critic to know. But he does not dogmatically affirm values or lay down inflexible rules, even though they might undeniably exist. The dogmatic critic looks down upon his audience as if they were creatures of a lower level of understanding; the intelligent critic presupposes intelligence on part of his readers. “He must simply elucidate”, says Eliot, the reader will form the correct judgment for himself. Dryden merely points out a novelty or imparts some lessons to artists. Dryden, though more disinterested than Campion, writes his essay to justify his own dramatic or poetic practice, and this is symptomatic of all 17th century criticism. The lack of total disinterestedness becomes obvious if we compare him to a critic like Rochefoucauld. The difference is that with a mind like Dryden’s or Campion’s, there is always a dogmatic trend; an inclination to dictate laws rather than to discover them. Such a mind prefers reconstructing laws out of the same raw material to revisioning or even overturning existing laws. But even Coleridge, the greatest of English critics, cannot, according to Eliot, be described as a totally free intelligence. The lacuna in his case lies in his metaphysical interests which were, unfortunately, largely a matter of intensely felt emotions. Coleridge does not always seem to be aiming at coming back to his subject with greater perception and more intense pleasure; he is, instead diverted into metaphysical questions. P. Bhattacharya humorously says “Emotion, Eliot’s bête noire is once again the culprit!”(81). A critique of Coleridge’s tendency “to take leave of the date of criticism” highlights the claim that good criticism is “the disinterested exercise of intelligence” which “looks solely and steadfastly at the object”. Achieving the critical ideal of seeing “the object as it really is” requires “a pure contemplation from which all the accidents of personal emotion are removed”(12). Aristotle possessed that extremely rare thing: the intelligent mind, the ability to see an object as it is, unbiased by one’s personality. Eliot does not call it the ‘scientific mind’ because scientists are rarely impersonal outside their chosen fields. Eliot’s early criticism shows a distrust of most philosophy and an admiring faith in science. Richard Shusterman argues: “In ‘The Perfect Critic’ he (Eliot) uses ‘philosophic’ as a pejorative term for the vague abstract verbalism of speculative philosophy, ‘to cover the unscientific ingredients of philosophy’”, and he contrastingly praises ‘the scientific’ and the scientific philosopher, Aristotle is portrayed as the perfect critic because he has ‘the scientific mind- a mind which . . . might better be called the intelligent mind. For there is no other intelligence than this”(37). Remy de Gourmont, according to Eliot, is the only one approximating Aristotle’s free intelligence, combining “to a remarkable degree sensitiveness, erudition, sense of fact and sense of history, and generalizing power”(11).

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What Eliot demands from the perfect critic is ‘clarity of perception’ and ‘sensibility’. Criticism is an intellectual pursuit, an enquiry. What criticism does is to enquire into the very nature of the poem’s existence. ‘Sensibility’ is the power to be affected impersonally yet acutely by all kinds of experience not one’s own. The structure of impressions is ever fluid since it is being constantly modified. This can never become wholly articulate and therefore all serious criticism is tentative and non-emphatic in tone. Whenever, the good critic makes a generalization it must be so put as to remain open to new impressions. Criticism, for Eliot, is “a development of sensibility”. Bad criticism, on the other hand, is “an expression of emotion”. At the end of the essay, Eliot arguably contends: “as sensibility is rare, unpopular, and desirable, it is to be expected that the critic and the creative artist should frequently be the same person”(13). Eliot’s contention is borne out by facts. Ben Jonson, Dryden, Coleridge, Dr. Johnson, and Eliot himself have been the best critics. Pradip Bhattacharya observes: “Eliot’s method of telling us about his idea of the perfect critic seems to be the Upanishadic ‘Neti, neti’ (it is not this, and not this either) mode”(122). Taking up the impressionistic and the abstract type of critics, he conclusively proves that neither of them can be called a true critic. The critic must not approach his subject with preconceived ideas of what it ought to be like; nor should he let his personal likes, dislikes and emotions interfere with his examination of it. Of course, to be wholly impersonal in criticism is surely impossible. Jean-Michel Rabate aptly argues: “The idea that a great critic has to ‘eriger en lois ses impressions personnelles’ (turn one’s personal impressions into laws) contains all the subsequent paradoxes on the need to have a ‘personality’ in order to get rid of personality” (216). References Bhattacharya, Pradip (1995). T. S. Eliot: The Sacred Wood: A Dissertation. Patna: Bharati Bhawan. Eliot, T. S.(1997) The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism. London: Faber and Faber. Rabate, Jean-Michel (1994). “Tradition and T. S. Eliot”. The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot. Ed. A. David Moody. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 210-222. Shusterman, Richard (1994). “Eliot as Philosopher”. The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot. Ed. A David Moody. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 31-47.

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Research as a Vital Role Player in the Field of Teacher Education Dr. Gaurav Sachar Assistant Professor, P.K.R Jain (P.G.) College of Education, Hisar Road, Ambala City, E-mail:-drgauravsachar@gmail.com, gauravsachar2012@yahoo.in ABSTRACT “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than over confidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention.” Research has proved to be an essential and powerful tool in leading man towards progress. There would have been little progress as we find it today, without systematic research. Research has its own importance in all fields like Physical, Biological, Social, Psychological, Agricultural, Archaeological, Economic and Educational etc. One of the major inputs towards enhancing the quality of teaching and learning in schools as well as teacher education institutions would be the extent to which research outputs and the outcomes of innovations are utilized by the system. “Teaching is not a profession but a mission.” In this mission the teacher should be a source of inspiration. If we want to give our young people the best education possible. We must first provide the best education and training to those who will teach them. The result of the research or the utility for the teacher educator or the classroom teacher remains rather low. Institutional capabilities and resources need to be augmented, enabling them to undertake relevant researches. Researches must respond to policy issues and curriculum, evaluation procedures and practices, training strategies and classroom practices etc. As a field of study, teacher education is coming of age. In several countries, institutes and centres of study focusing on teacher education have recently been established. An international community of teacher educators is emerging through exchange programmes, international conferences and publications. A new interest in research on teacher education has developed, fuelled by lively discussion about appropriate methodologies and areas for research. .An increased number of research paper are being presented at national and international conferences organized by groups such as the Australian Teacher Education Association, the American Educational Research Association, the European Association of Teacher Educators, and the Canadian Association for Teacher Education and the Indian association of Teacher Educators etc. This is a sincere attempt has been made to look at the part played by research in the ongoing challenge of providing the best education possible for those who will teach our children.

Key Words: - Research, Nature & Purpose - Scope - Areas - Problems - Trends - Implications of research in Teacher Education

Introduction Educational research is that which develops new knowledge, which is then applied to the improvement of educational practice. Same is true for Teacher Education. The contributions of research to educational knowledge are easy to demonstrate through reviews of related literature. However, it is difficult to determine whether the accumulation of research findings has made an impact on the practice of education. Even when research knowledge attracts the attention of policy makers in education, they generally consider it just one source of information to use it in shaping a particular policy, or use it to justify a unpopular decision, or cut funds, or may dismiss the research findings which are contradictory to their beliefs. In spite of this research in education in general and teacher education in particular continues to grow and make its contributions to the body of knowledge.

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Nature & Purpose of Research in Teacher Education Essentially there are two broad purposes of research in Teacher Education. They are - (1) to understand the educational phenomenon and (2) to transform it. Understanding the Educational Phenomenon implies that it should fit into a theoretical framework. This helps to conceptualize, explain, control and predict the dynamics of a given phenomena. For example, to explain the phenomena of teaching means arriving at a conceptual framework of relationships with regard to teaching, explaining the nature and extent of relationships among the variables and controlling the effect of certain variables related to teaching on certain other variables. Prediction would then give a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena. Conceptualizing means arriving at inter related set of variables. Conceptualizing may not involve verification since many paradigms are hypothetical in nature. A well-articulated framework applicable to many contexts based on systematic perspective is the presageprocess-product paradigm of teacher education. Prestige variables would include the personality variables, process variables would imply curriculum transaction i.e. mode of teaching students and product variable would be a performance of students on a test. Explaining relationships among variables in teacher education is important. There is a relationship among variables is one thing but explaining why they have a relationship is another. Thus it is essential to know the forces that influence the relationships and at the same time understand the underlying unobservable processes acting on these relationships. Controlling variables in a network of relationships among variables operating in teacher education is essential. It is highly difficult to study the dynamics of a variable in isolation. For example Performance of a teacher trainee in practice teaching may depend on several factors such as mental make-up, personality, language fluency, communication skills, training received, experience and motivation, the grade level of students taught, subject matter and classroom conditions. The researcher wishes to study how the new method of training the teacher affects the performance of teacher trainees in practice teaching he/she probably has to control many of the variables listed above. Otherwise the researcher will not be able to reach a precise conclusion about the effectiveness of the training. Thus the influence of the intervening variables has to be controlled if nor experimentally then at least statistically. Prediction i.e. the researcher should be able to foresee the nature of changes that would occur in dependent variables based on his/her knowledge of the relationships of this variable with another variable which is independent in its influence on the given variable. Transforming the Educational Phenomenon means incorporating changes in the phenomena as it exists because of some dissatisfaction with it In order to improve it. This is true of teacher education too. When there is dissatisfaction with the existing practices in teacher education changes may be required in the structure as well as the processes of teacher education. Research provides necessary ground for any changes to take place because changes based on research are sound and effective. Scope of Research in Teacher Education The system of Teacher Education has several sub-systems. There is constant interaction among them. As such the components of the system, the inputs, processes and the outputs lend themselves to research. Inputs include the goals of Teacher Education, characteristics of the teacher educators, characteristics of the studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s teachers, and infrastructural facilities. Processes include the classroom interactions among teacher educators, student teachers and pupils. Interactions consists simulated learning experiences in order to provide learning of various skills such as teaching and evaluation. Outputs are the immediate outcomes as well as Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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delayed outcomes. Immediate outcomes include the gaining of theoretical knowledge, acquisition of the required skills and attitudes. Delayed outcomes are the retention of the theoretical knowledge, skills, attitude and developing teacher effectiveness. Research Methodologies adopted are mainly descriptive surveys, experimental studies, developmental studies, as well as relational studies. Action research is also conducted by teacher educators to improve classroom practices. Descriptive surveys are used to procure data in teacher education or describe the characteristics of teacher education. Experimental studies are conducted mainly to study the effect of intervention strategies or training programmes. Relational studies try to study relationships between the input and process, process and output, or input, process and output. Developmental studies put forth the historical developments in teacher education in order to explain the status of teacher education at a particular time or changes over a period in one or more sub systems of teacher education. This gives a systemic view of the temporal dimensions of teacher education. Areas of Research in Teacher Education There is a wide spectrum of variables related to teacher education. For example, selection procedures, development of battery of tests for selection and then try to predict success based on the selection criteria. Research areas would include personality of student teachers, teacher educators, different types of training such as pre service and in service training, or the different levels of teacher education i.e. teacher education for elementary level or secondary level. Most of the researches are isolated and there seems no connection between them As such, super imposing of a classificatory system helps to identify cluster of variables. A cluster of variables thus identified may be called an area â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;of research. During the seventies researches in teacher education were classified in five areas such as selection criteria, abilities and qualities of a teacher, pre and in service training of teachers, work load, job expectations and difficulties expressed by teacher, procedures and practices of teacher education in India and personality variables of teachers. In the later years researches were classified under context, input process and output variables. During the eighties context, presage, process, product were the categories. The context variables include student-teacher characteristics, institutional characteristics related studies and on classroom context. Student-teacher characteristics means student-teachers formative experiences, academic qualifications, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, etc. Institutional characteristics include climate of teacher education institutions, administrative set up, classroom climate, curriculum framework. The presage variables include teacher-educator characteristics i.e. formative experiences of teacher educators, their education and training, motivation, abilities, personality factors, intelligence, and teaching and training skills. The process variables such as classroom interactions, classroom transactions and mediating processes that lead to learning. Such variables are attending, practicing, task persistence, active learning time and student teacher engagement with learning task. Teacher behaviour in the classroom and supervisory behaviour of teachers relating to student teaching too are some of the research variables. The product studies on outcome of teacher education include two types of variables. One, those describing immediate outcome of teacher education i.e. student-teacher outcomes such as their achievement, attitudes and skills, and two long term outcomes describing level of professional skills and teaching success or teaching effectiveness.

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Problems of Research in Teacher Education There has not been much headway in research since the researchers face a number of problems. More research is needed in the area of teacher education and there needs to be qualitative improvement too. Problems of research are both intrinsic and extrinsic to the researcher. Following are some of the glaring problems of research in teacher education. • Lack of Qualified Personnel: Researcher’s lack the minimum abilities, skills, acquiring these is a deliberate process. It is important that besides acquiring the qualifications researchers gain knowledge of the theory of teacher education, skills of scientific inquiry, ability to analyze and interpret data and make rational judgments. • Lack of Motivation: This happens when researcher has no qualification and no inclination to do research. The system fails to encourage them and utilize their abilities. There are no proper incentives to do research. • Lack of Resources and Facilities: Many a times there is lack of several adjunct conditions influencing undertaking of research? For example unavailability of expert advice for proper planning or statistical procedures for analyzing the data or proper reporting of findings. Lack of material facilities such as hardware, stationary can also cause hindrances. • Problems of Finance: There is less research done due to lack of finance. Fund agencies such as UGC, NCERT and ICSSR at times fail to provide funds. • Arbitrariness: Arbitrariness in research means lack of meaningful relation among studies. Any research should be based on previous research for its assumptions, hypotheses and theoretical background. Only then will there be hierarchical growth in the discipline. Therefore it is important to establish proper linkage among studies to develop a coherent understanding of the phenomenon after a certain number of studies. This avoids duplication in research and enhances the possibility that all aspects and variables involved are attended to properly. Prediction becomes difficult and it becomes difficult to establish as to the direction in which research in teacher education is going. Instead of paradigmatic set of hypotheses getting tested, individual hypotheses are tested. As a result the growth of knowledge is slow or zero. Thus it is important to have long term plans for research. • Lack of Consensus: There are as many views and priorities in education as there are researchers involved in it. Concurrence of views in a point of time will help researchers to work within common theoretical purpose. • Lack of Coverage: Lack of attention to some of the areas of teacher education or differential attention from researchers to some areas of research comes in the way of covering a large number of areas needing attention. At some period of time certain areas come into prominence. As a result many researches get done in the area, while other areas get receded. For example there are many studies on test construction or on teacher behaviour, or only on micro-teaching. What is required is thematic research for balanced and uniform progress. Trends in Research in Teacher Education Quantitative Leap: The first study reported in Teacher Education was by Banerji in 1956. After the first study was reported the First Survey reported 45 studies on Teacher Education up to 1973. The Second Survey during the next five years i.e. up to 1978 reported 65 studies. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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During the period 1978 to 1983, 116 studies were reported. The growth of researches in Teacher Education indicates that the researchers were getting attracted towards this area. Some of the reasons cited for this attraction were easy accessibility of sample for the studies, availability of ready-made tools and expertise. •

Systematization of Instruction: Instruction dominated by lecture ‘method, which is usually a one way interaction and often unstructured was called the traditional method. Research on instruction show a shift of emphasis from lecture method to structured methods such as programmed learning, instructional model-based teaching or structured lectures. The purpose of research was to make instruction at Teacher Education level a systematic activity. The main intention was to make instruction reproducible. Further, the purpose was to develop instructional strategies for Teacher Education.

•

Larger Coverage of Objectives: Attempts to cover a larger number of objectives were seen. These included classroom interaction analysis for objective evaluation of lessons to achieve the objective of understanding dynamics of classroom teaching. Micro-teaching studies aimed at developing skills of teaching. Programmed learning for imparting theoretical knowledge. Discussion as an alternative method for developing social interaction skills and higher order cognitive skills, and simulation for development of application and decision making skills and abilities were also areas of research. The trend which emerges indicates that objectives of teacher education were researched.

•

Alternative Model: Earlier researches on the Harbartian model as a method of teaching, Flanders interaction model and micro-teaching were seen as the behaviouristic models. However, recent researches indicated a different trend wherein other behaviouristic models such as Concept Attainment, Inquiry Training and Advanced Organizer Models. This was indeed a welcome change. During the current period researches on the context, presage, process and product variables highlighting the importance of areas of teaching and learning styles of teachers and students, cognitive styles, student and teacher characteristics, management of education and technology of education and technology in education are gaining importance and attention of researchers.

Implications of Research in Teacher Education Teaching, like other professions, has a developing knowledge base that serves to guide practitioners. Knowledge generated by research is an important component of this knowledge. Teacher education and staff development programme might be considered to be a central avenue of knowledge dissemination on one hand, and of practicing its use in varied contexts on the other hand. The curriculum of teacher education and the text books they use, determine what aspects of research knowledge will be brought to the attention of becoming teachers. The practicum and teacher induction programmes might serve student teachers and novices in learning how to use this knowledge base. Research findings constitute a regular feature of teacher education courses in the foundation disciplines, like psychology, and in method courses, but the translation of the findings into class-room action is usually left to the student teachers who find this an extremely difficult or even impossible task. Teacher education is an important field for research since the quality of teacher education has been regularly questioned. At the same time as teacher quality is increasing being identified as crucial to educational outcomes and pupil gains. Consequently teacher education researcher needs to work together in order to Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Share emerging research findings. Develop innovative research methodologies within teacher education. Disseminate innovative pedagogical methods within teacher education. Find new publishing outlets within an overcrowded academic field. Support colleagues in institutions with under developed research profiles. Develop important emerging themes to give teacher education research a distinctive positive. Networking should be established with central level agencies working in the area of Teacher Education. They are Teacher Education unit in the MHRD, National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), National Council Educational Research and Training (NCERT), University Grants Commission (UGC). There are other supporting institutions like National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) now known as National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA), Central Hindi Institute (CHE), Central Institute of English (CIE), Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Directorate of Adult Education (DAE), National Institute for Handicapped (NIH). Conclusion This paper covers the nature & purpose of research in Teacher Education, which is to understand the educational phenomenon and transform it. The scope of research in Teacher Education encompasses the whole system of i.e. the inputs, processes, the context, presage, and process variables in Teacher Education. Problems of research in Teacher Education are many. They are lack of qualified personnel, lack of motivation, arbitrariness, lack of resources and facilities, problems of finance, lack of coverage, and lack of consensus among researchers. Trends in research in Teacher Education indicate a quantitative leap in the number of researches conducted, systematization of instruction, larger coverage of objectives and alternative methods and models available. Finally importance of networking between teacher education institutions, and district, regional, state and central agencies has been highlighted. Special importance has been given to its implications in the field of teacher education. References Borg, W.R. and Gall, M.D. (1983) Educational Research: An Introduction New York, Longman Inc. Biddle, B.J., Good, T., Goodson, L.I.F. (Eds.) International Handbook of Teachers and Teaching Vols. I & II, Dordrechet, Kluwer, Academic. Dunkin M.J. (Ed.) (1985) the International Encyclopaedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, Oxford, Pergamon. Gupta, A.K. (1984) Teacher Education: Current and Future Prospects New Delhi, Sterling. Kerawalla. G.J. (Ed.) (1990) Redesigning Teacher Education: A Systems Approach Department of Education, University of Bombay. NCTE (1998) Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education NCTE, New Delhi. NCTE (1998) Policy Perspectives in Teacher Education, NCTE, New Delhi. Sharma S, Teacher Education in India. Singh, L.C. (1990) Teacher Education in India: A Resource Book, NCERT, New Delhi. www.google.com

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A Study of the Values of Prospective Secondary School Dr. Nisha Raninga Assistant Professor, Smt. J.J. Kundaliya Graduate Teachers’ College, Rajkot, E-mail: nisha.edu@gmail.com ABSTRACT Teacher education system is an important vehicle to improve the quality of school education. The revitalization and strengthening of the teacher education system is therefore, a powerful means for the upliftment of educational standards in the country. The success of any educational process depends on the values, teacher attitude, teaching aptitude, personality of the teacher and many more factors. Hence the researcher has selected the topic, “A study of the values of prospective secondary school teachers”. In this research objectives are to study the influence of gender, academic qualification and methodology on the values of prospective secondary school teachers. Random stratified sampling technique was adopted for the collection of data. 10 colleges of education under Saurashtra University were selected and the total sample constituted 550 students. And the collected data have been analysed separately by using ‘t’ test. From the findings of the present study it was revealed that majority of the prospective secondary school teachers have moderate level of values. As the prospective teachers are future teachers, the teacher education curriculum should aim at increasing the level of value orientation in them.

1.0 Introduction Education, in its true sense, is a process of aiding the all-round development of an individual - physical, intellectual, social, moral and spiritual. The teacher is expected to function not only as a facilitator for acquisition of knowledge but also as transformer of inner being. But during recent times, education became mere acquisition of information in cognitive learning areas with the sole purpose of passing examinations and getting degrees. This is resulting in the emergence of lopsided personalities. Ancient Indian education was value based. The ultimate purpose and aim of education in Ancient India was attainment of self-realization. Education was beyond all religions, in the sense that it was aimed at realizing the ultimate reality, harmonious development and spiritual well-being of an individual. The relationship between the teacher and the taught was spiritual and divine with such a close relationship; individuals acquired knowledge, efficiencies and attained meaning to life. 2.0 Objectives of the Study Prospective secondary School Teachers: The term prospective teacher in the study refers to an individual who is undergoing training of B.Ed. in college of education. 1.0

To study the influence Gender on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

2.0

To study the influence of Academic qualifications on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

3.0

To study the influence of Methodology on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

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3.0 Hypotheses of the Study 1.0.

There is no significant influence of Gender on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

2.0

There is no significant influence of Academic qualifications on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

3.0.

There is no significant influence of Methodology on the values of prospective secondary school teachers.

4.0 Tool The tool used in the study was to measure values, Teacher values inventory by Dr. (Mrs.) Harbhajan. L. Singh and Dr. S.P. Ahluwalia. 5.0 Sampling Design Random stratified sampling technique was adopted for the collection of data. 10 colleges of education under Saurashtra University were selected and the total sample constituted 550 students. 6.0 Statistical Technique The impact of this independent variable was seen on different dependent variables. And the collected data have been analysed separately by using â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;tâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; test. 7.0 Methodology The researcher used the normative survey method for the present study. 8.0 Analysis of Data There is no significant influence of gender on the values of prospective secondary school teachers. To test this hypothesis, the following procedure was adapted. Mean and S.D were computed separately for the two subgroups (Male and Female) of the whole group. From them, the standard error of the difference between the means was computed. Finally critical ratio was calculated. The data is presented in the table -1. Table -1 : Influence of Gender on the Values of Prospective Secondary School Teachers Variable

Mean

S.D

Male

200

601.36

8.41

Female

350

599.60

C.R

1.76

2.22*

8.62

*Significant at 0.05 level From table-1 it is observed that the obtained C.R value (2.22) is more than the table value 1.96. Therefore it is significant at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. It can be inferred that the gender makes a significant influence in the values of the prospective secondary school teachers. The mean difference is in favour of the males. That means male Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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prospective teachers have high level of values when compared to females. There is no significant influence of academic qualifications on the values of prospective secondary school teachers. Table-2 : Influence of Academic qualifications on the Values of Prospective Secondary School Teachers Variable

Mean

S.D

Graduates

400

599.60

8.91

596.40

7.23

Post Graduates 150 * Significant at 0.05 level

C.R

2.05

2.91*

From table-2 it is observed that the obtained C.R value (2.91) is more than the table value 1.96. Therefore it is significant at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. It can be inferred that the academic qualifications make a significant influence in the values of the prospective secondary school teachers. The mean difference is in favour of graduates. That means graduate prospective teachers have high level of values when compared to post graduate prospective teachers. There is no significant influence of methodology opted of the theoretical value of prospective secondary school teachers. Table-3 : Influence of Methodology opted on the Theoretical value of Prospective Secondary School Teachers Variable

Mean

S.D

arts

250

95.60

16.60

102.45

20.90

science 300 * Significant at 0.05 level

C.R

6.56

4.10*

From table-3 it is observed that the obtained C.R value (4.10) is greater than the table value 1.96. Therefore it is significant at 0.05 level. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected. It can be inferred that the methodology opted makes a significant influence on the theoretical value of the prospective secondary school teachers. The mean difference is in favour of the science teachers. That means, the prospective teachers of science stream have more theoretical value than the arts students. 9.0 Findings of the Study 1.0

Gender makes a significant influence on the values of the prospective secondary school teachers. The male prospective teachers have high level of values when compared to females.

2.0

Academic qualifications also make a significant influence on the values of the teacher trainees. Graduates have higher level of values than the post graduate prospective teachers.

3.0.

The prospective teachers of science stream have more theoretical value than the arts students.

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From the findings of the present study it was revealed that majority of the prospective secondary school teachers have moderate level of values. As the prospective teachers are future teachers, the teacher education curriculum should aim at increasing the level of value orientation in them. One of the findings from the study showed that males have high level of values than females. The teacher training programme should concentrate to increase the level of values among the female prospective teachers as well, since we have more number of females joining the teacher training course. 10.0 Conclusion As a result of quick economic growth, over mechanisation, urbanisation and craving for materialistic life, there has been a loss of values and of the value system at the individual level and in the country as a whole. Materialistic needs and never ending lust to earn more and more by putting in less and less effort has become the order of the day. Therefore, it has to be balanced by a value-based life and by inculcation of an attitude that earning money is for leading a respectable life and for helping others who are disadvantaged. Where and when this value orientation should take place in the life of any person? It should begin from home, be buttressed by the community and be entrenched positively by one's school. The kingpin in the schooling process is the teacher. In the present study, it is noticed that most of the prospective secondary school teachers have moderate level of values. If values have to be nurtured in children it would be crucial that their teachers function as role models. So it becomes extremely important that the teacher education aims at inculcation of values in student-teachers, who are future teachers. Among many, one of the main objectives of teacher training colleges should be development of values. References Datta, A. (2004). Helping students ascend the steps of value education. In M. Mukhopadhyay (Eds.), Value Development in Higher Education. New Delhi: Viva Books. L.Kaul.(1998). Methodology of Educational Research, (Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Mukhopadhyay, M. (Eds.). (2004). Value Development in Higher Education. New Delhi: Viva Books. Ruhela, S.P. (2000). Values in Modern Indian Educational Thought. New Delhi: Indian Publishers and Distributors.

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A Study on the Job Satisfaction of Secondary School Teachers Dr. Prodip Das Assistant Teacher, K.Y.M. S.N. (H.S.), District - Hooghly, West Bengal, India, E-mail:lavenda007@rediffmail.com ABSTRACT The feeling of Joy and pleasure that a person has at the work he or she engaged is known as his/her job satisfaction. It is linked with the set of mind he/she has. It seems to hi personal concern. The monetary rewards or the wages that someone gets could also be linked with the job satisfaction. What inspires him, gives him a short of thrill to be at his best at the job, is a source of his job satisfaction. What keeps him out of place at the job, works against the job satisfaction that he could have job. Satisfaction serves him as his motivation to the work; this influences his effectiveness at work. In our study on the job satisfaction scale for secondary teachers, the focus will be given to determine the differences in job satisfaction on various respects viz rural and urban; male & female, etc. and that leads to establish the relation between job satisfaction and teaching experiences of secondary school teachers.

Key Words: Motivation, Teaching Experience, Job Satisfaction, Secondary School Teachers

Introduction “Copper “ (1977) writes as “A basic tenet of personal work has long be that a satisfied employee, with a high moral is likely to get along better with other employees, will be more committed to achieving organizational goals and in general will be more productive. This belief persists despite rather limited supportive research.” The outcome of unsatisfied secondary teachers in respect of the job leads to their low moral further perceived in terms of teacher’s stress and burn out. They Are left with no intrinsic motivation causing their heartily and mindly absence at their job places and moreover perceived in the state of diellema about their role in making students developed & growing fully in every respect. The secondary School teacher is concerned with such young minds who need care, protection, nourishment and motivation. But the effectiveness of teacher affects the school effectiveness as a whole of course; for this teacher should have the job satisfaction at all levels as the secondary school could not an exception. There are four factors which individually as the source of job satisfaction of teacher who teach the students of secondary classes. They could be describing: Teachers personal considerations Working conditions Social Status Administration Statement of the Problem The main objectives of these investigations are to measure Job satisfaction of secondary teacher and to determine relationships between job satisfaction of secondary teacher and experience of teaching in secondary school. The problem is thus stated as. Review of Related Studies The Need Theory: Motivating employees with Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs (1943): Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of Need Theory proposed that motivation’s a result of person’s Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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attempt at fulfilling five basic needs. At the first level there are physiological needs like hunger and at the last fifth level needs are psychological needs. These are known as needs of self actualization or self-fulfillment. As a whole, the satisfaction of the person depends upon the satisfaction of these needs in his life. This is his intrinsic feeling about the satisfaction of these needs at work that could be the cause of his motivation at work. It is due to this the theory is known as the theory of intrinsic motivation. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory (1968): According the job satisfaction and the job dissatisfaction are independent dimension. Satisfaction is affected by motivation (intrinsic) and dissatisfaction by hygiene (Extrinsic) factors. Thus the factors involved in producing job satisfaction are separate and distinct from the ones that led to job dissatisfaction. Three factor theory by Hoy and Miskel(1982)p.p.139-148:they have added one more factor to the Herzberg’s two factor theory. These factors are: 1. Motivation, 2. Hygiene and 3. Ambient. The third factor ambient has the things that could add the satisfaction or bring dissatisfaction to the worker as: 1. Salary 2. Possibilities to grow in the profession, 3. Risk taking opportunities and relationship with the superior person at work. Dhotia, N.C (1990): a study of factor affecting job satisfaction of commerce teachers of Rajasthan and its impact on educational achievement of their pupil Ph. D education university of Rajasthan. The major findings that he got were 1) Job security pay, awareness and academic freedom were positively related to job satisfaction. 2) Teaching experiences was not related to job satisfaction. 3) Attitudes towards interpersonal relationship were related to job satisfaction. 4) Outgoingness, intelligence emotional stability and sobriety were related to the job satisfaction. 5) Principal leadership influence job satisfaction of teacher. 6) Job satisfaction did not have any significant impact on the achievement of pupils. Natarajan, R (1992): His study examines the influence of different types of school climate on teacher satisfactions and the achievement of the pupils M. Phil education, Annamalai University the major findings were 1. There were six types of organizational climate viz. a) Open Climate b) Autonomous c) Familiar d) Controlled Climate e) Paternal Climate f) Close Climate 2. No rural school was found to have autonomous and controlled climate. 3. There existed sex difference in job satisfaction of teacher. 4. Job satisfaction of teachers was not found to be influenced by the difference caused by the place of work – rural / urban school and type of school boys / girls or mixed school or by the type of management government / semi government / private school in the subject they taught.

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5. Teachers age and there experience were not related to job satisfaction. 6. The teachers of open climate had very high level of job satisfaction in comparison rate any other group. 7. There was no difference in the achievement of students in school having different organizational climate. Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study may be stated as: •

To analyze the different factor affecting motivation (Intrinsic and Extrinsic) in respect to job satisfaction of secondary teachers. • To study the relationship between job satisfaction of teacher and educational achievement of pupils. • To study the different types of organizational climate of the secondary school. • To investigate the relationship between the organizational climate and job satisfaction of teachers. • To study the level of job satisfaction of secondary teachers in different organizational climates. • To find out the relationship between the organizational climate and the academic achievement of pupils. Hypothesis of Study On the basis of the above objectives, the following Hypothesis were framed, formulated and to be tested • •

Teachers of secondary school exhibit wide variations in their job satisfaction. There is a significant difference between urban and rural secondary teachers in respect of their job satisfaction. • There is a significant difference between male and female secondary teacher in respect of their job satisfaction. • There is a significant relationship between job satisfaction of secondary school teachers and their teaching experiences. Delimitations of the Study The content area of the job satisfaction scale used was delimited to include only • Personal Consideration • Working Condition • Social Status • Administration The researchers delimited the size of the standardizing sample to hundred (N-100) in respect of job satisfaction for scale secondary teachers. One could not change the size of the standardized sample due to shortage of time. Significance of the Study The significance of the study can be stated through the following bullet points: Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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It is intended to shed light on what influence how people feel about their work. How to cultivate positive job – attitude. To clarify what job satisfaction is. To find out the process involved in attaining job satisfaction in secondary school teacher. To develop a model of process were individual attain job satisfaction specially teachers in secondary school. With the relevance of the finding of these investigation pertaining to secondary school teacher’s job satisfaction, the findings about the job satisfaction of college and university teachers be analyzed. From such stand points this investigation has got immense significations. Meheodology In the descriptive research, correlation of studies is often used for determining the extent of relationship between variables. The methodology enables a researcher to ascertain the extent to which variables is associated with variations in another. The magnitude of relationship is determined through the use of the coefficient of correlations. In the present context we determine whether two groups (viz. male & female teachers; urban and rural teachers; experienced and inexperienced teachers, etc) differ significantly in mean performance, i.e. to be able to say with confidence that there is a difference between the means of the population from which the samples were drawn. One can calculate critical ratio CR which is found by dividing the difference between the sample means by its standard error: (CR=D/σD) Population : The population of this investigation are the secondary school; teachers belonging to the urban and rural areas of the Barrackpore subdivision of the district of North 24 Parganas in West Bengal having hindi as the medium of institution. Sample: The sample will consists of one hundred secondary school teachers taken from the Urban (N=50) and Rural Areas (N=50). Urban areas are Kanchrapara, Halisahar, Municipality & Rural areas Jetia & Kampa Panchayat, under block Barrackpore I of Barrackpore Subdivision. Instruments (Tools) The present study require instrument for measuring the job satisfaction of secondary school teachers. After reviewing the different test that could be used on the sample selected, particularly for the secondary school teacher having Hindi as the medium of instruction. It was observer that no standardized test on job satisfaction was available. As no other suitable tools were available for measuring the job satisfaction of secondary teachers, we will design to construct one such tool. The secondary teacher’s job satisfaction Questionnaire was a Liker type scale constructed and standardized by us. Another variables that need to be measured was the “experience of teaching” the sample concerned. We will ask the respondents to mention their teaching experience in years on the front page of Questionnaire. Procedure of Data Collection From the cluster of secondary school teachers belonging to the concerned population 100 variables (Urban teachers = 50 & Rural teachers = 50) be randomly selected and questionnaire o the topic (JOB SATISFACTION) be administered on them and the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Respondents be asked to go through the questions and will be advised to indicate by a tick mark in the box corresponding to the category(5,4,3,2,1) which he would select depending on the degree of his agreement with one of the categories such as strongly agree(5), agree(4), undecided(3), disagree(2) and strongly disagree(1) with the statement. After having completed the final administration of the Jon Satisfaction Questionnaire, the answer scripts be self collected by us. Data Analysis The data analysis has been divided into 3 parts. The first part presents the analysis and interpretation of the sources by means of descriptive statistics. The second part deals with the analysis and interpretations through correctional technique. The third part contains the analysis and interpretation through inferential statistics. Variables 1) Secondary school teachers of Barrackpore Subdivision having Hindi as Medium of instruction. 2) Job Satisfaction 3) Teaching Experience Conclusion: Measured the variability of the job satisfaction scale, it was found that the performance on the job satisfaction scale of the secondary teacher varied widely. The secondary teachers on which investigation was conducted belonged to heterogeneous group. The nature of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction varied largely from one individual teacher to another such that the scores cover a wide territory. There is much variation in the nature of job satisfaction of the secondary teachers. Investigator tried to determine the relationship between job satisfaction of secondary teachers and their teaching experience. The same relationship and product moment co-efficient were calculated between scores of the job satisfaction and teaching experience. References Maslow, A.H. Motivation and Personality (2nd Edition), New York; Harper and Row publishers (1970), Herzberg, F. Mousner, B and Snyderman, B. The motivation to work, New York, Wiley Publications (1959). Hoy, M.F and Mickel, C. G. Educational Administration. New York; Random House Publication (1978). Nias, J(1980) leadership style and job satisfaction in secondary school on Bush, T, Glatter, RF, Gooddey , J.Riches, C. (eds). Approaches to school management; London, Harper and Row. Herzberg, (1986) work and nature of man, London stapler press.

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Stress among Teacher Educators from Self-Financing Colleges of Education Dr. Radhakanta Gartia Block Education Officer, Bijepur, Department of School and Mass Education, Govt. of Odisha, India, E-mail: radhakantaedu@gmail.com ABSTRACT Present study examined the factors which contribute stress among the teacher educators currently teaching in self-financing colleges of education affiliated to Kurukshetra University, Haryana. There were five sources of teacher stress that included in this study: time management, work related stressors, professional distress, discipline and motivation and professional investment. A total of 85 teacher educators from 12 selffinancing colleges of education affiliated to Kurukshetra University of Haryana state were selected randomly for represent the population. Sample of the present investigation constituted of 29 male and 56 female teacher educators. Instrument used to measure teacher stress was the adapted version (adapted by Rubina Hanif, 2004) of Teacher Stress Inventory constructed by Fimian (1985). The alpha Croncbach for the instrument in the present study was .85. Data were analyzed using both descriptive (mean, frequency and percentage) and inferential (t-test) statistics. Results indicate no significant difference of teacher stress among the respondents based on gender. But significant differences were found between the stress of teacher educators who teach fifty and more students in the class, between the stress of teacher educators who teach less than four periods a day and teacher educators who teach more than four periods a day, between the stress of teacher educators having three and more years of teaching experience and teacher educators having less than three years of teaching experience.

Key Words: Teacher Stress, Teacher Educators, Self-Financing Colleges of Education Teachers have always been the centre of attention in the classroom, yet ironically their concerns and needs have not always been addressed in the same way. Nowadays teachers have heavier responsibilities than ever before, and studies show that teaching is one of the most stressful jobs in comparison to other occupations (Adams, 2001). Innovations in the field of education and teaching have created a rather novel role for teachers. Teachers are no longer looked at as he mere transferors of knowledge, but as individuals who need to communicate and engage with students more than before and to care for their inner worlds (Arnold, 1999). The teachers are held responsible in shaping the minds of next generation. Imagine if they are not being paid well, not even being respected in the community. Though teaching is called as labor of love, until now, the realities of classroom life has made teaching stressful. Teachers face high amounts of stress during teaching and handling students. Classrooms in developing countries remain overcrowded and the teachers face intensive verbal communication, prolonged standing, high volume of workload. The environment of a working place has great impact on the level of stress. Teaching related stress, commonly termed ‘teacher stress’, is defined as a teacher’s experience of “unpleasant, negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, tension, frustration, or depression, resulting from some aspect of their work as a teacher” (Kyriacou, 2001). Like other forms of occupational stress, it can have serious implications for the healthy functioning of the individual as well as for the organization in which the individual serves. The issue of teachers’ stress is one that has received reasonable attention regionally, nationally and internationally (Pickering, 2011). In India the educational institutions are run by government as well as by some individuals or trusts. It has been observed that teachers in private educational institutions receive more stress than their counterparts of government institutions. In case of teacher Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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education institutions, the situation is more peculiar. Here the victims are teacher educators, who prepare teachers to serve our country. All of us related with teacher education are well known with the problems faced by the teacher educators from private teacher education institutions. Problems related to salary, workload, administration, working environment, unnecessary interference of management, etc are common. Taking these facts into consideration, the present investigation is an attempt to explore the stress of teacher educators from self-financing colleges of education. Objectives of the Study 1. To study the stress of teacher educators from self-financing colleges of education. 2. To compare the stress of teacher educators who teach four and more periods per day and who teach less than four periods per day. 3. To compare the stress of teacher educators having 3 and more years of teaching experience and less than 3 years of teaching experience. 4. To compare the stress of teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class and who teach less than 50 students in a class. 5. To compare the stress of male and female teacher educators. Hypotheses of the Study 1. There exists no significant difference in the stress of teacher educators who teach four and more periods a day and who teach less than four periods a day. 2. There exists no significant difference in the stress of teacher educators having 3 and more years of teaching experience and less than 3 years of teaching experience. 3. There exists no significant difference in the stress of teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class and who teach less than 50 students in a class. 4. There exists no significant difference in the stress of male and female teacher educators. Method Participants: To comply with the objectives of the study, 85 teacher educators were selected randomly from 12 self-financing colleges of education affiliated to Kurukshetra University of Haryana state. The sample of the present investigation constituted of 29 male and 56 female teacher educators. Measures: To measure teacher stress, adapted version of Teacher Stress Inventory of Fimian, 1985 (adapted by Rubina Hanif, 2004) was utilized. The Inventory comprises of 29 likertscale items in five subscales namely time management, work related stressors, professional distress, discipline and motivation and professional investment. In response to the questionnaire statements, respondents are asked to choose one of five responses: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, or strongly agree. The alpha Cronbach for the instrument in the present study was .85. The demographic data of the participants were gathered via the

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information sheet. In the information sheet, data of the teacher educators include their name, gender, locality, qualifications, teaching experience, designation etc. Results Table-1 Categorization of teacher stress: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 93.14)

27.06

Moderate (75.3 to 93.14)

49.41

Low (Below 75.3)

23.53

Total

100.0

Table-1 depicts that out of the total 85 teacher educators, 23 i.e. 27.062% teacher educators, who score above 93.14 are highly stressed, 42 teacher educators i.e. 49.41% who score between 75.30 to 93.14 are moderately stressed and the rest 20 teacher educators i.e. 23.53% who score below 75.30 were found to be less stressed. Dimension-wise Categorization Table-2 Categorization of work related stress: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 19.74)

40.00

Moderate (15.06 to 19.74)

30.59

Low (Below 15.06)

29.41

Total

100.0

Table-2 reveals that out of the total 85 teacher educators, 34 i.e. 40.00% teacher educators, who score above 19.74 are highly stressed because of work, 26 teacher educators i.e. 30.59% who score between 15.06 to 19.74 are moderately stressed because of work and the rest 25 teacher educators i.e. 29.41% who score below 15.06 were found to be less stressed because of work. Table-3 Categorization of discipline and motivation: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 18.05)

27.06

Moderate (13 to 18.05)

45.88

Low (Below 13)

27.06

Total

100.0

Table-3 indicates that out of the total 85 teacher educators, 23 i.e. 27.06% teacher educators, who score above 18.05 are highly disciplined and motivated, 39 teacher educators i.e. 45.88% who score between 13.00 to 18.05 are moderately disciplined and motivated and the rest 23 Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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teacher educators i.e. 27.06% who score below 13.00 were found to be less disciplined and motivated. Table-4 Categorization of time management: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 26.84)

37.65

Moderate (22 to 26.84)

37.65

Low (Below 22)

24.70

Total

100.0

According to table-4, out of the total 85 teacher educators, 32 i.e. 37.65% teacher educators, who score above 26.8 are above average in time management, 32 teacher educators i.e. 37.65% who score between 22.00 to 26.84 are average in time management and the rest 21 teacher educators i.e. 24.70% who score below 22.00 were found to be below average in time management. Table-5 Categorization of professional distress: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 18.65)

34.12

Moderate (14.17 to 18.65)

29.41

Low (Below 14.17)

36.47

Total

100.0

Table-5 shows that out of the total 85 teacher educators, 29 i.e. 34.12% teacher educators, who score above 18.65 are highly professionally distressed, 25 teacher educators i.e. 29.41% who score between 14.17 to 18.65 are moderately professionally distressed and the rest 31 teacher educators i.e. 36.41% who score below 14.17 were found to be less professionally distressed. Table-6 Categorization of professional investment: frequency and percentage Teacher Stress Level

Frequency

Percentage

High (Above 12.15)

25.88

Moderate (8.43 to 12.15)

38.82

Low (Below 8.43)

35.30

Total

100.0

Table-6 reveals that out of the total 85 teacher educators, 22 i.e. 25.88% teacher educators, who score above 12.15 are above average in professional investment, 33 teacher educators i.e. 38.82% who score between 8.43 to 12.15 are average professional investment and the rest 30 teacher educators i.e. 35.30% who score below 8.43 were found to be below average in professional investment. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Table-7 Comparison of stress of teacher educators who teach 4 and more periods per day and who teach less than 4 periods per day Groups

Teach 4 and more periods

78.24

19.70

t-ratio 2.14*

Teach less than 4 periods

87.32

16.13

* denotes 0.05 significant level Table-7 reveals a significant difference at 0.05 levels between the stress of teacher educators who teach 4 and more periods a day and who teach less than 4 periods per day, with educators who teach less than 4 periods a day were found to be more stressed than teacher educators who teach 4 and more periods a day. Hence the earlier stated hypothesis “There exists no significant difference in the stress of teacher educators who teach four and more periods a day and who teach less than four periods a day’’ was rejected. Table-8 Stress of experienced and less experienced teacher educators Groups

3 and more yrs teaching exp

88.07

15.68

t-ratio

2.08* Less than 3 yrs teaching exp

80.10

19.25

* denotes 0.05 significant level Table-8 reveals a significant difference at 0.05 levels between the stress of teacher educators having 3 and more years teaching experience and teacher educators having less than 3 years teaching experience. Teacher educators having 3 and more years teaching experience found to be more stressed than teacher educators who have less than 3 years teaching experience. Hence the earlier stated hypothesis “There exists no significant difference between the stress of teacher educators having 3 and more years teaching experience and teacher educators having less than 3 years teaching experience’’ was rejected. Table-9 Stress of teachers who teach 50 and more students in a class and who teach less than 50 students in a class Groups

Who teach 50 and more

90.46

17.82

t-ratio

students in a class 2.02* Who teach less than 50 students in a class

81.16

17.19

* denotes 0.05 significant level

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Table-9 depicts a significant difference at 0.05 levels between the stress of teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class and teacher educators who teach less than 50 students in a class, with teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class were found to be more stressed than teacher educators who teach less than 50 students in a class. Hence the earlier stated hypothesis “There exists no significant difference between the stress of teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class and teacher educators who teach less than 50 students in a class ’’ was rejected. Table-10 Stress of male and female teacher educators Groups

Male teacher educators

83.52

15.44

t-ratio

0.29 Female teacher educators

84.53

18.63

Table-10 depicts no significant difference between the stresses of male teacher educators and female teacher educators; it means teacher stress is not gender sensitive. Hence the earlier stated hypothesis “There exists no significant difference between the stress of male teacher educators and female teacher educators ’’ was accepted. Discussions of the Results The prevalence of stress among teacher educators ranging from moderate to high was 49.51% to 27.06%. Though majority of teachers found to be moderately stressed (49.51%), 27.06% teacher educators were highly stressed with their job. These finding is incongruence with the result of Hanizah (2003), where he found the prevalence of stress among 55.70% of teachers. Present investigation found experienced teacher educators more stressed than their less experienced counterparts. This result of the present study is against the finding of Antoniou, Polychroni and Vlachakis (2006) where they found less experienced teachers more stressed than their experienced counterparts. Present investigation revealed no significant difference in the stress of male and female teacher educators, this finding of the present study is corroborated with the result of Hadi, Naing, Daud, Nordin and Sulong (2009), where they found no difference between the stress of male and female teachers. According to the results of present study, teacher educators who teach less than 4 periods a day found to be more stressed than those who teach 4 and more periods a day, this might be because of the fact that more involvement teaching relief stress from the teacher educators. Teacher educators who teach 50 and more students in a class were found to be more stressed than teacher educators who teach less than 50 students in a class. This result might be because of the fact that overcrowded class leads to stress of teachers. Educational Implications In recent years, the problem of teacher stress and related issues had already drawn the public attention and frequently be the headlines of newspapers. The findings of this research could serve as a useful reference for the government and related organizations such as NCTE, UGC, NCERT, SCERT and various Teachers’ Unions when formulating the policies and strategies to help the teachers relieve and cope with their work-related health problems. Moreover, with the information of common sources of teacher stress found in this research Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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for reference, the government could be more considerate of the teachers while establishing new education policies or educational reforms. The results of the present research suggest the need for periodical stress management programmes to reduce the stress among teacher educators which in turn will improve their functional skills and lead to effective teachinglearning and better teacher education programme. Finally, this research study is believed to be able to enlighten other researchers to conduct further in-depth studies to investigate the occupation health problems of the teachers. References Adams, E. (2001). A proposed causal model of vocational teacher stress. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 53 (2), 223-246. Antoniou A. S., Polychroni, F. & Vlachakis, A. N. (2006). Gender and age differences in occupational stress and professional burnout between primary and high-school teachers in Greece. J Manage Psycho, 21, 682-90. Arnold, J. (1999). Affect in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fimian, M. J. (1983). A comparison of occupational stress correlates as reported by teachers of mentally retarded and non-mentally retarded handicapped children. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 18, 62-68. Hadi, A. A., Naing, N. N., Daud, A., Nordin, R. & Sulong, M. R. (2009). Prevalence and factors associated with stress among secondary school teachers in Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia. Southeast Asian Trop Med Public Health, 40 (6), 1359-1370. Hanif, R. (2004). Teacher stress, job performance and self-efficacy of women school teachers. Doctoral Dissertation, National Institute of Psychology, Centre of Excellence Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad. Hanizah, M. Y. (2003). The effect of information technology usage on the prevalence of stress among school teachers in Selangor and factors affecting the stress. Master Thesis, University Kebangsaan, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 110. Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review 53 (1), 27â&#x20AC;&#x201C;35. Pickering, C. (2011). Challenges in the classroom and teacher stress. Provincial Health Services Authority of British Colombia.

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Empowerment of Women – A Gandhian Approach Dr. Sarmila Das Assistant Professor, Shimurali Sachinandan College of Education, Shimurali, District – Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: sarmiladas16@rediffmail.com “WOMEN is the mother of the nation and the Country where the mother is cultured and well education, is bound to prosper” –Mahatma Gandhi

Equality and empowerment of women are necessary to bring about an egalitarian human society. Societies can not succeed by suppressing the talents of half of their member. Promoting gender equality and empowerment of women was declared as an important millennium development goal adapted by the Millennium Summit held in New York in September, 2000. The Summit stressed the need of eliminating gender disparity & empowered women. Empowerment refers broadly to the expansion of freedom of choice and action to shape one’s life. It implies control over resources and interdependent has multiple, interrelated and interdependent dimension – economic, social, cultural and political. It can be understood in relation to resources, perceptions, relationship and power. Women’s empowerment primarily means having their contribution recognized and valued Empowerment of women means developing them as more aware individuals who are socially developed, politically active, economically productive and independent and are able to make judicious choices and inelegant decisions in mothers that affect them. Mahatma Gandhi was basically a visionary whose thinking has influenced the world for more than a century now. His philosophies were pragmatic and farsighted. He was not only one of the greatest leaders of Indian Nationalism but also a major social and political reformer, who played an important role in purging the Indian society of its inherent evils. Condition of Women in Indian: The condition of the Indian women towards the end of the 19th century was deplorable. There were practically no facilities for women’s education. In 1901 the literacy percentage amongst women was only 8%. They suffered from a number of social and religious superstitions. The great Indian reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy had pleaded for inheritance right for women. Ishware Chandra Vidyasagar championed the enlistment of women. Mahatma Gandhi also advocated women participation in all political struggles which he waged against the British. His concept of women as a constant energy of righteousness can be explained. Gandhiji’s Call for Women: Mahatma Gandhi believed that Satyagraha was the most powerful weapon in a nonviolent struggle. Satyagraha involves defiance. It involves the willful, peaceful, breaking of laws that are unjust. Since, according to Gandhiji, women were the most nonviolent & ardent lovers of peace, it could be sharpened and extended as a weapon in women’s struggles for justice and equality. To him the ultimate ahimsa and Satyagraha was when women, in vast numbers, rose Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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up to put an end to the destructive aspects of male dominance in society. Had the momentum of freedom struggle not been solved down, such mobilization could have attracfed many more women into public life. Political activity geared towards the transformation of society into the holistic, integrated entity as Gandhiji had visualized has not yet crystallized. Satyagraha is now just a word , a mere symbol, that serves no purpose for the academic or the elite, or even the middle class feminist whose dialectic emerges from a theoretical background fur removed from Gandhiji’s poor women who act because they have no use for words to explain themselves. Gandhi’s Perception of Women: There was a marked difference of Gandhi’s perception of women from that of other reformers. The stance taken by other social reformers and leaders, prior to Gandhi created a helpless image of the Indian women. With the emergence of Gandhi, a new conception of women gradually gained currency. For Gandhi, women were not mere toys or dolls in the hands of men neither their competition. According to Gandhi, “Intellectually, mentally and spiritually women is equivalent to a male and she can participate in every activity.” Gandiji said, in his writings and speeches that in many matters, especially those of tolerance, patience and sacrifice the women are superior to male. Men and women are essentially endowed with the same spirit and therefore have similar problems. Women are at par with men, one complementing the other. Regarding the role of women, Gandhiji once said “Womanhood is not restricted to the kitchen.” He opined and felt that only when the women are liberated from the slavery of the kitchen that her true spirit may be discovered.” It does not mean that women should not cook, but only that household responsibilities be shared among men, women & children. Gandhi laid more emphasis on the role of women in the political, economic and social emancipation of the country. Empowerment is multifaceted multidimensional and multilayered concept. “Empowerment involves of confidence in individuals about their own capacities. It refers to enhancement of the intellectual, political social economic and spiritual strength of people and communities to make them part of the mainstream society.” (Rahmatullah, 2009) Economic Empowerment & Gandhiji: Economic empowerment refers to access to financial resources, decrease of vulnerability of women during crisis situation, criminating the dependency of money, increase in the income and the freedom to use their income, financial self reliance and over ship of income generation assets. Female work participation not only in crease their family income but also bring economic independence and self respect among women in the household. This helps them to participate more effectively in intra household decision making and have belter access to information. But the economic empowerment of women is possible only when they have full autonomy to spend their income and also control resources. As far as the economic emancipation of women was concerned Gandhi felt that female folk could be engaged in the college and small scale industries of the village such as spinning, broom, basket and rope Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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making and oil processing so that the rural women can supplement to the family income. Hence empowerment of women has to be the ultimate goal to improve the quality of the society and development of the economy. Social Empowerment & Gandhiji: Social empowerment means equal status of participation and power of decision making at the household level and community level. Indicators like respect in family participation in public programme, social awareness, social mobility, decision making social respect and entrepreneurial to measure social empowerment. Social empowerment implies promotion of social capabilities such as education, health, cultural aspects and women’s properly, productive resources. According to Mahatma Gandhi rules of social conduct must be framed by mutual cooperation & consultation women must realize her full status and play her role on par with men. He favoured the emancipation of women and he opposed purdah and social evil customs such as sati, child marriage, dowry etc. The customs of child marriage became a target of his criticism. In his opinion child marriage is a source of physical degeneration as much as a more evil. According to Gandhiji chastity cannot be protected by the surrounding wall of the purdah. It must grow from with in and it must be capable of with standing every unsought temptation. For him, the purdha system was no less than a “vicious, brutal and barbarous. The system of dowry could not pass unnoticed from his critical eyes. He called dowry as a heartless demand. He atoned that girls should were marry men who demand dowry, at the cost of their self respect and dignity which are the major indicator of empowerment. According to Gandhiji women are gifted with equal mental capacities and therefore she has equal rights. However, due to the force of custom, ignorant and worth use men have been enjoying superiority over women the women had greater powers of self sacrifice and suffering on this account women were capable of infinite strength, which they only needed to realize and channel. Women had a key role to play in the family, in Gandhi’s opinion. The family was the crucible of society where future citizens, leaders and lawgivers were nurtured. Hence, it was here that the mother could mould the value and traits of her children in a direction that could lead to social progress. The ultimate aim was to teach children to be self-reliant and not keep them dependent on the family’s resources. Political Empowerment & Gandhiji: Political empowerment is characterized by producer organizing collectively and attempting to enhance their influence and bargaining power not simply with respect to other market actors, but also in terms of the development policy process itself and in relation to bodies such as local, regional, national and global. Political empowerment is about the capacity of producer to exert claims on such actors and institution and to hold them accountable. Historically many women have been active in the Indian National Movement. The clarion call of Swaraj led many women to come to the forefront of polities and sacrifice their Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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lives at the altar of the nation. It is said that Gandhiji faminised the nationalist politics by emphasizing Satyagraha and creating special space for women so political participation of women is started from the Indian National Movement which is led by Mahatma Gandhi. Gandhiji’s political ideologies are strongly based on humanitarian values, which were a reflection of his spiritual self. For him, politics could not be divorced from social factors. To Gandhi, social emancipation was as critical as political emancipation. Gandhi, throughout his life, struggle at very hard for the enlistment of the socially downtrodden, making significant contributions for the development of the status of women in India. Gandhijis inspiring ideologies boosted their self esteem. Not only there was a general awaking among the women, but under Gandhi’s leadership they entered into the National mainstream, taking parts in the National movements. In Gandhi’s words “To call women the weaker sex is a libel, it is man’s injustice to women.” Gandhi had visualized a great role for women in eradicating the evil of communalism. Gandhiji’s call reached women everywhere in India. He expected great things from them in the areas of work concerning parity of life, removal of intractability, propagation of khadi, communal harmony and Swadeshi. Women Education & Gandhiji: Education is the backbone of society and it largely responsible for is enlistment. Education is a human right and an essential tool for achieving equality as it ensures that girls grow up with the knowledge of the world, ability for critical thinking and practical skills which lead to self confidence and self respect. Gandhiji always favoured women education. The educationally ill- disposed should be educated by their hen bends. The customary and legal status of women is bad and demands radical change. Education enables women to uphold their natural right. For him, men and women are complementary to each other. Conclusion: Today the empowerment of women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century. But, we observe in our day-to-day life how women become victimized by various social evils. Undoable, the father of the nation, Mahatma Gandhi experimented in this field a century age and he had shown the way for the empowerment of women and the development of the status of women. Today it is a great need to follow Gandhian view’s which can positively help us to achieve this goal. References: Shukla, R. (2002), Gandhian Philosophy of Education sublime Publication, Jaipur. Sing, M. K (2008), Gandhi on Education, Rajat Publications, New Delhi. Bama, S.K & kumar Aneet, (2015), Mahatma Gandhi and Education, A.P.H. Publishing corporation, New Delhi. Nandela Krishna, Gandhi and women Empowerment, Episteme, vol. 4, Issue I, June 2015. Padmavathe, P.R, The Gandhian Approach towards Women Empowerment, International Journal of Academic Research, Vol. I, Issue 3 (3) (Special), Oct – Dec. 2014.

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National Curriculum Frame Work (NCF) 2005 by NCERT–A Critical Analysis Dr. Sobhan Banerjee Assistant Teacher, Aguibil High School (H.S), District - Purulia, West Bengal, India, E-mail: banerjeesobhan28@gmail.com ABSTRACT The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) proposed the National Curriculum Framework as a means of evolving a national system of education, recommending a core component derived from the vision of national development enshrined in the Constitution. The Programme of Action (POA, 1992) elaborated this focus by emphasising relevance, flexibility and quality. In areas of the school curriculum, i.e. language, mathematics, science and social sciences, significant changes are recommended with a view to making education more relevant to the present day and future needs, and in order to alleviate the stress with which children are coping today. This NCF recommends the softening of subject boundaries so that children can get a taste of integrated knowledge and the joy of understanding. The curriculum framing with its implications is an ongoing process. From time to time the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has been preparing model curriculum. In pursuance of the National policy of Education (NPE) 1986 and as revised in 1992, it prepared the National curriculum Frame work for school education in 2000. National Steering Committee chaired by Prof. Yash Pal and 21 National Focus Groups were set up in July 2004. The curriculum was given a final shape in 2005. The main object of this paper is to focus on the role of NCF 2005 in different aspects of educational objectives as said in the previous educational commission.

Introduction It is universally accepted that school curriculum should be so designed and implemented as it fulfils the needs of a changing society. There is no doubt that the curriculum is a devise to translate national goals into educational experiences. The curriculum framing with its implications is an ongoing process. From time to time the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has been preparing model curriculum. In pursuance of the National policy of Education (NPE) 1986 and as revised in 1992, it prepared the National curriculum Frame work for school education in 2000. This curriculum was prepared by the Govt. formed by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by the B.J.P. In May 2004, the NDA Govt. was replaced by the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Indian National congress. The Minister of Human Resource Development, Government of India, in a statement said that the National curriculum Frame work for School Education developed in 2000 during the period of NDA did not meet the requirements of the Secular State. It was also observed that it did not redress the issues relating to the teaching burden and stress on the children. Accordingly, the Education Secretary, Ministry of Human Resource Development Communicated to the Director, NCERT the need to review the National Curriculum frame work for School Education in the light of the report ‘Learning without Burden’ (1993). In the context of these decisions, a National Steering Committee chaired by Prof. Yash Pal and 21 National Focus Groups were set up in July 2004. The curriculum was given a final shape in 2005.

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Guiding Principles of the NCF – 2005 The Planners have explicitly state the guiding principles of the NCF – 2005 in the following statements. We need to plan and pay attention to systematic matters that will enable us to implement many of the good ideas that have already been articulated in the past. Paramount among these are •

Connecting Knowledge to life outside the school,

•

Ensuring that learning is shifted away from rote methods,

•

Enriching the curriculum to provide for overall development of school children rather than remain textbook centric,

•

Making examination more flexible and integrated with classroom life and,

•

Nurturing an identity soaked in caring concerns within the democratic polity of the country.

The National Curriculum Framework – 2005 at a Glance Chapter – 1: Perspective: According to the recommendations of the curriculum planners this chapter focuses on life centric knowledge, overall development of children, national system of education, quality education, sensitivity towards gender justice, values, problems faced by the SC and ST, needs of the disabled etc. Chapter – 2: Learning and Knowledge: This chapter highlights holistic approach in the treatment of learner’s development, inclusive environment in the classroom, local Knowledge, pedagogic practices etc. Chapter – 3: Curriculum Areas, School and Assessment: In this chapter, the planners of NCF have given stress on language skill, Mathematization, science teaching in relation to environment, social sciences for conceptual understanding etc. Chapter – 4: School and Classroom environment: This chapter focuses on infrastructure of school, development of Self discipline among learners, Partnership between school and community, reconceptualization of learning resource in terms of Textbooks, supplementary books, Workbooks, Multimedia and ICT, school library etc. Chapter 5: Systematic Reforms: In this chapter, the curriculum planners have emphasised on systematic reformation for improvement of quality in educational system. Supportable aspects of NCF – 2005 The National curriculum Frame work (NCF) – 2005 should be commended for its forward looking interventions in education. This document has broken new ground by adhering to some sound basic principles. It foregrounds the fact that curriculum reform must be about pedagogy as much as it is about content. It recommends a range of pedagogical innovations that should be applauded. It emphasizes creativity and critical abilities at the expense of rote learning. It creates room for a curriculum that talks to children rather than talk at them. It recognizes that the rich work knowledge base of students from marginalized communities can be turned into a source of learning and dignity. It seeks to produce self-reliant, confident, creative students and more importantly it reposes trust in their abilities. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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The frame-work allows for a nuanced appreciation of Pluralism and diversity. But it does this not by wielding some ideological shibboleth called diversity. Instead it allows for the curriculum to be adopted and modified in the light of diverse needs of many different kinds. While allowing for pluralism and diversity, it sets down some basic norms that the curriculum will have to comply with. Striking a balance between pluralism and Standardization, autonomy and adequate monitoring, local variations and global requirements is not an easy task. But this framework has the foresight to acknowledge these tensions and suggest a constructive balance. The approval, by the Central Advisory Board of Education of the proposal to make the class X Board Examinations optional should be commended. This move will ensure that there is less stress on school children, who have to take two Board Examinations in the last three years of schooling. Since education is a state subject, in that case, the implementation of the decision is likely to be diluted. The NCF points out the need for reforms in the system of examination and evaluation. The council of the Board of School Education exhorted all State Boards to adopt a standardized evaluation system and make examinations stress free. To-wards this, the NCF had also suggested a shorter duration of examinations and papers that comprised welldesigned multiple questions and short answer queries. The NCERT had suggested that English be made the second language and learning it should be mandatory for all classes in all streams of education. These suggestions have merit and should be implemented. The NCF’s suggestion of having not more than thirty students in a section is very sound for quality education. It also points out that decentralization of educational planning and administration is the need of the hour. The strength of the new NCF (2005) lies in the fact that it sees the classroom as part of the larger secular, pluralistic society envisaged in the constitution. It seeks to address the socio-economic distortions that have created an imbalance in the transfer of knowledge. Its vision is to make learning a participative process, where knowledge is gained and enriched by connecting it to the experiences of child’s life and his social and cultural reality. A primary guiding principle in the NCF is to connect knowledge to life outside school. It speaks of “the need to recognise the child as a natural learner, and knowledge as the out come of the child’s own activity”. Accordingly great emphasis is placed on incorporating local Knowledge, on encouraging “intelligent guessing” – that zone between what an ideas a child knows and what he almost knows- and on making the child poses questions. Ramchandra Guha, member of the National Steering Committee has rightly said that these are forward–looking reforms to make education more relevant and more joyful. Critical Aspects of NCF (2005) The duly approved NCF – 2005 can be criticised on many grounds. Such as – This document on curriculum is theoretical and philosophical in nature. As a document, the NCF is lavish in its resolve to place the child at the centre of all learning, to abandon the sole emphasis on textbook in instruction and on examinations in Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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evaluation. It has, however, invited questions about how this educational reform will actually be affected. It stresses on Local Knowledge Traditions. Stress on local knowledge traditions could serve as an umbrella for all kinds of obscurantism and be an impediment to rationality. But there are no local variations of rationality. Systematization of Knowledge must be universal. Secularism is not given adequate emphasis in the revised draft. Exclusion of religion from education and school instruction must be given greater prominence than has been done in the revised draft, because the need to shift from religious value – laden education provides an important justification for NCF – 2005. The NCF has attached enormous weight to pedagogy through the introduction of child centred Knowledge. But a large number of academics and educationists have expressed concern that the strong emphasis on pedagogy may erode the content of disciplines. The NCF favours plurality of textbooks. But such a plurality already exists and perhaps in excess of the demands of pluralism. It does not appreciate Sanskrit, India’s heritage adequately. The framework is materialistic in its approach, neglecting the spiritual aspects of life. Yoga is only been discussed in framework as part of physical training. But Yoga should be taught as a separate stream with much more importance. It is very essential that at the school level, right from the primary stage, deliberate planned and sustained efforts should be made to inculcate basic human values among the students. Apart from personal values there are certain social values which ought to be imbibed by the young mind. These are the values which concern the whole community, concern for the aged and the handicapped, for the deprived sections of the society etc. Sincere belief in the dignity of labour is generally found to be lacking in our young generation. The value of self dependence and self respect and dignity of manual labour are thus required to be impressed upon students. The NCF – 2005 ignores several accepted truths. In NCF – 2005 special emphasis has been given in the area of teaching learning of social sciences keeping in view the pluralistic nature of Indian society. But the framework very loosely speaks for different subject matter integration and it does not state to what extent the inclusion of different aspects of integration of learning experiences would follow vertical, horizontal or spiral or wheel approach. Or in which way it will maintain continuity in organization of educational experiences. It does not list the subjects which are to be studied at the Secondary and higher Secondary stages. It puts heavy demands of teachers. It requires huge infrastructure to implement it. Its suggestions of permitting a school to have its own curriculum seem to be ‘Utopian’. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Hasty approach has been followed in curriculum framework, syllabus preparation and textbook writing. But Progressive and good quality books cannot be prepared in a hurry. While drawing out plans, their financial implications must be worked out. The NCF falls short of these basic elements. Concluding Remark From overall observations on the NCF – 2005 it seems, the formulators of the curriculum have overlooked the words of wisdom said by the Education Commission (1964-66) on the construction of the curriculum, “The first is the need for systematic curricular research so that the revision of the curriculum may be worked out as a well co-ordinated programme on the findings of experts instead of being rushed through haphazardly and in a piecemeal fashion”. References Aggarwal, J. C. (2007). History of Modern Indian Education (Sixth Ed.), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Aggarwal, J. C. (2008). Development and Planning of Modern Education (Ninth Ed.), Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Aggarwal, J. C. (2008). Educational Reform in India (Third Ed.), Shipra Publications. Dash, B. N. (2007). Curriculum Planning and Development. (1st Ed.), Dominant Publishers and Distributors – 2007 NCERT (2005). National Curriculum Framework – 2005, NCERT, New Delhi. Posner G. J. (1995). Analyzing the curriculum, McGraw-Hill, New York. Purkait, B. R. (1992). Milestones in Modern Indian Education (1st Ed.), New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd., Calcutta.

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Islamic Prayer Nāmāz (‘Salat’)—As a Meditation or Yoga: An Analysis Hemanta Adhikari Research Scholar, Department of Philosophy & Comp. Religion, Santiniketan, Visva-Bharati, District - Birbhum, West Bengal, E-mail: tomadhikari.blp@gmail.com ABSTRACT Yoga is the product of sadhana of learned men and women, which are beyond religion and pertain to one’s physical and mental well-being. Yoga is not for any caste, religion. It just works for making a person healthy. It also helps connect to God. What is the relation between yoga and Islam? While we are reading Qur’an and offering namaz, the position which we take, it is there in yoga. The customary prayers of Muslims (namaz), where physical movements of prayers (salaat) have been beautifully conglomerated with spiritual exercise, result too many surprising health. Namaz is highly beneficial to activate all the seven Chakras as per the yogic philosophy. Offering namaz has many benefits such as spiritual, religious, physical, mental, economical, social etc. However, salaat is the excellent form of neck and upper vertebra exercise and a high quality of meditation.

In Arabic, ‘nāmāz’ is known as ‘salaat’, which is derived from ‘silaa’ meaning ‘meeting’.1 Thus, nāmāz is means for meeting God; that is, during nāmāz man’s submission and God’s acceptance take place. This nāmāz, formulated by the great prophet Mohammad (peace be on Him), under the inspiration of God, has to be prayed 5 times a day: before sunrise, at noon, between noon and sunset, just after sunset, and before bedtime. Thus, if a Muslim practices nāmāz strictly and properly, he will be automatically fit and sound physically, mentally and spiritually. In this respect, the Holy Qur’ān says that2 ‫َ ُ ۗ َو ﱠ‬/0ْ َ‫ﷲِ أ‬ ‫ ُ ﱠ‬0ْ 1ِ َ ‫ِ ِ" ا ﱠ َ ةَ ۖ إِ ﱠن ا ﱠ َ ةَ َ ْ َ ٰ َ ِ ا ْ َ ْ َ ِء َوا ْ ُ َ ِ ۗ َو‬#َ‫ب َوأ‬ َ‫ن‬2ُ3َ ْ َ 'َ "ُ َ43ْ َ- ُ‫ﷲ‬ ِ َ&ِ ْ ‫ َ* إِ َ ْ)(َ ِ' َ ا‬+‫و‬ ِ ُ‫ َ' أ‬,ُ ْ ‫ا‬

“Recite what is sent of the Book by inspiration to thee, and establish regular Prayer: for Prayer restrains from shameful and unjust deeds; and remembrance of Allah is the greatest (thing in life) without doubt. And Allah knows the deeds that ye do.” On the other, Yoga has been known for its scientific basis as a healthy lifestyle practice for thousands of years. Patanjali is regarded as the ‘father of yoga’. It was also discovered and developed during the vedic period. Yoga derives from the Sanskrit word ‘yuj’ means ‘to yoke’; to join the supreme power ultimately through simple, healthy, sacred and spiritual lifestyles. According to yoga, the human personality is composed of ‘purusha’ (man) and ‘prakiti’ (nature).3 Salaat, or the prayer, is an obligation upon every Muslim male and female. Salaat is also the decisive criterion beteen a Muslim and a non-Muslim, the true believer and the hypocrite. The Prophet said, “The covenant between us and them (i.e. the disbelievers) is the prayer, so if anyone abandons it, he has become a disbeliever.”4 Salaat also teaches Muslims to observe punctuality as it is prescribed at stated times. In this sense, the Holy Qur’an teachesْ ‫ ِ َذا‬:َ6 ۚ "ْ ُ ِ<2ُ =ُ ٰ َ4 َ ‫دًا َو‬2ُ3ُ#‫ِ)َ ً' َو‬# َ‫ﷲ‬ ‫ ُوا ﱠ‬0ُ ‫َ ْذ‬6 َ‫@ ْ)&ُ ُ" ا ﱠ َ ة‬ ْ 7 0َ َ‫ا ا ﱠ َ ةَ ۚ إِ ﱠن ا ﱠ َ ة‬2 ُ )ِ#َ5َ6 "ْ ُ& َ7ْ5 َ ‫اط‬ َ )ِ 'ِ Aْ ُ ْ ‫َ ا‬4 َ Bَ َ َ# ‫ ِ َذا‬:َ6 5 ً 2ُ# ْ2'‫&َ <ً ﱠ‬0ِ

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“When ye pass (Congregational) prayers, celebrate Allah’s praises, standing, sitting down, or lying down on your sides; but when ye are free from danger, set up regular prayers: for such prayers are enjoined on Believers at stated times.” Salaat, or prayer, should be performed very consciously, both physically and spiritually. There is a lot of discussion on the spiritual significance of salaat. Many people perform yoga with soothing instructions to help them meditate. In a soft voice, a man or woman would describe how to breathe, what to imagine, and what to feel. Recitation of the Qur’ān serves similarly as guidance to the individual. However, it serves not only to guide you during salaat but also to guide your life. Guidance and peace are core values in Islam to the point that prayer is needed five times a day. It is so significant that a sect of Islam, Sufism, was created to make meditation their main focus. Daily prayer referred to as salaat in Arabic language is an act worship specific and unique to Islam both in its form and spirit. Salaat is an act of submission to the supreme creator Allah and is expressed in a specific and well defined physical act of worship and is ordained upon all Muslims as a duty and is the sacred pillar of the faith. The prescribed five daily prayers are mandatory on all individuals. The sacred form worship which is called ẓikr , meaning meditation is an individual act of remembering Allah at all times to glorify Him and remain thankful for His mercy and beneficence. As the sacred pillar of Islam, salaat is performed by all Muslims across the globe in exactly the same manner and measure, at least the mandatory five prayers. The steps and specific supplications are demonstrated by example by the Holy Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) as mentioned in this Hadith, “Pray as you have seen me praying and when it is the time for the prayer one of you should pronounce the Ādhān and the oldest of you should lead the prayer.”6 In order to realize the far-reaching and deep-seated impact on the attitude, behavior, and life of a believer. Salaat must be understood properly and exercised appropriately as given in the authentic texts. To perform salaat, all Muslims should perform physical cleansing and ready himself spiritually. The term ‘wudu’ translates to ablution which Muslims perform before the salaat by washing their hands, face and feet in a specific order. Synthesis of Namaz and Yoga You will interest to know that when we started performing namaz as an adult, we were also practicing yoga side by side. We practiced namaz because it was a religious obligation, and we practiced yoga because of our sheer interest. Being very particular about adherence to the right posters of both nāmāz and yoga, we realized that namaz, if performed strictly according to the tenets of Islam, will not lead the namazee to experience spiritual upliftment, but will also maintain physical fitness and mental peace. There are many yoga techniques around the world, like Hatha-yoga, Raj-yoga, kundalini-yoga, sahaj-yoga etc. Islamic prayer salaat (nāmāz) is also a simple form of yoga. It is a combination of Asana, Meditation and Chanting (recitation) of the Holy verses of the Qur’an. Yoga is physical, mental and spiritual practice. Salaat is a compulsory system of physical, mental and spiritual exercise which promotes and helps to remove postural defects, rectifies spinal curves, repairs heart and blood vessels and regulates the blood supply. Nāmāz is the prescription from Allah for better health and fitness who offers it regularly. Thus, it is the natural way to keep oneself healthy. There is a great correlation between nāmāz and yoga. Yoga rejuvenates the mechanism of body and mind. It helps to restore harmony among various components of lifestyle—physical, social, emotional, spiritual, mental and psychological. The basic concept Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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of yoga is to relish and cherish the life with exhilarating excitement. The same case is also with namaz. Yoga and namaz is certainly a substitute of stress and desires free personality. Namaz is one of the best forms of meditation or Dhyan from yogic point of view where the person unilaterally surrenders to Allah. Meditation is defined as the uninterrupted flow of mind towards a particular object. During prayer (Salaat or Du’a), a Muslim is supposed to concentrate and meditate on God and supplication. This meditation opens and strengthens a connection between God and the human being. That connection helps that person to be guided to Truth and maintain internal peace. Meditation has not only spiritual but worldly benefit. Contemplation is a form of meditation. Many people will contemplate by reading a few lines of Qur’an, Du’a, or an Islamic Book. Sensation is another method of meditation.7 Like old man, orthodox Muslims fear the practice of yoga will erode their faith in Allah and Islam. As the Holy Qur’an and Hadith (Prophet Muhammad teachings) have nothing specific that will make practice of yoga haram (forbidden), they based their judgment on their own concocted fear that supposedly ‘Hindu’ elements of yoga would destroy the faith of a Muslim. Salaat is a meditation of the highest order but even most Muslims have forgotten it. A salaat does not even start without the state of meditation. The Prophet, peace be upon him, instructed a person in salaat to meditate upon the presence of God who is watching the devotee. References and Notes 1. Md. Muhammad Ali, Five pillars in Islam, dbd publications, pp 45. 2. Abdulla Yusuf Ali, the Holy Qur’an, Text, Translation and Commentary,(Q.29:45) Amana Corporation, 1989, pp 998. 3. Samarendra Bhattacharya, Indian Philosophy, Book syndicate pvt. Ltd., pp 331. 4. Reported by Ahmed At-Tirmidhi and An-Nasaa’ee, Tirmidhi Hadith. 5. Abdulla Yusuf Ali, the Holy Qur’an, Text, Translation and Commentary,(Q.4:103) Amana Corporation, 1989, pp 219. 6. Sahih al-Bukhari, Book – II, Call to Prayers, Hadith 604. 7. www.islamic prayer and yoga as accessed on Date- 21.02.2016.

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National Institutional Ranking Framework for Higher Education Institutions in India Jayantibhai V. Patel Former Dy. Registrar, Ganpat University, Res: Timbadiavas, Village-Udalpur, DistMehsana-384001, E-mail:jyantp137@gmail.com ABSTRACT The institutions of higher education in India are in need of infusion of quality and clarity on the move towards building world-class educational institutions in the Indian context. Research assessment and national ranking of Indian educational institutions can play an important role in improving performance and quality of academic institutions. This year September though India has made its debut in the Quacquarelli Symondsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (QS) list of top 200 universities globally with the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi having ranked 147 and 179 respectively in the QS World University Rankings for 2015-16, the rankings business is still vaguely understood and undervalued by most universities in India. Apparently stung by repeated failure of showing up in the global top 200 rankings in almost every world rankings survey, the government has come up with a scheme for national rankings of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) called as the national institutional ranking framework (NIRF) with the hope that its first-ever national rankings of institutions of higher education will be published by April 2016. Addressing the 90th Convocation of Delhi University, Hon. President of India, Pranab Mukherjee said that the time has come to redefine the way education is imparted in India as it is simply unacceptable that no Indian university finds a place amongst top global institutions. This paper focuses on the prospects for present Indian Higher Education Institutions aspiring for world class university status with an added impetus through the national institutional ranking framework.

Introduction: The institutions of higher education in India are in need of infusion of quality and clarity on the move towards building world-class educational institutions in the Indian context. Research assessment and national ranking of Indian educational institutions can play an important role in improving performance and quality of academic institutions. This year September though India has made its debut in the Quacquarelli Symondsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (QS) list of top 200 universities globally with the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi having ranked 147 and 179 respectively in the QS World University Rankings for 2015-16, the rankings business is still vaguely understood and undervalued by most universities in India. Apparently stung by repeated failure of showing up in the global top 200 rankings in almost every world rankings survey, the government has come up with a scheme for national rankings of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) called as the national institutional ranking framework (NIRF) with the hope that its first-ever national rankings of institutions of higher education will be published by April 2016. Ever since the (first) Shanghai Rankings were announced in 2003 there have been extensive discussions among academics, academic leaders, the public and the politicians on the meaning, nature and characteristics of world class ranking of universities. In the present global educational milieu the notions of knowledge economy and world class university are concurrent (Altbach, 2004; Salmi, 2008, as cited in Ramaprasad, 2011). One important outcome of this reflection has been the growing desire to compete for a place at the top of a worldwide hierarchy of higher education. Addressing the 90th Convocation of Delhi University, Hon. President of India, Pranab Mukherjee said that the time has come to redefine Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the way education is imparted in India as it is simply unacceptable that no Indian university finds a place amongst top global institutions. This paper focuses on the prospects for present Indian Higher Education Institutions aspiring for world class university status with an added impetus through the national institutional ranking framework. Ranking of Universities: Rankings put forth immense influence in higher education by the rationalistic mantra of accountability. Hossler (2000) has noted that academic rankings have evolved out of public interest in accountability and assessment. Gormley & Weimer (1999) have argued that academic rankings serve as organizational report cards in response to consumer demand on academic quality. International experts provide more valid reason and support for rankings of HEIs from their own experience. Rankings are important indicators of progress and therefore help country. In the past decade the term world class university (WCU) has become a catch phrase not simply for improving the quality of learning and research in higher education but also more important for developing the capacity to compete in the global higher education marketplace through the acquisition, adaptation and creation of advanced knowledge. The paradox of the WCU however as Altbach has succinctly and accurately observed is that everyone wants one, no one knows what it is, and no one knows how to get one. The notion of WCU is intertwined with global rankings of academic institutions (Altbach, 2004). Altbach notes that the dictionary definition of world class refers to â&#x20AC;&#x153;ranking among the foremost in the world, of an international standard of excellenceâ&#x20AC;?. The scholars have attempted to define what world class universities have that regular universities do not possess and had identified a number of basic features such as highly qualified faculty, excellence in research, quality teaching, high levels of government and nongovernment sources of funding, international and highly talented students, academic freedom, welldefined autonomous governance structures and well-equipped facilities for teaching, research, administration and student life. Jamil Salmi describes world-class as synonymous with globally competitive or elite or flagship. He identifies three complementary factors as prevalent in WCUs, a high concentration of Talent (as represented by Faculty, Students and Research Scholars), abundant resources to offer a rich learning environment and to conduct advanced research and favourable governance features. Some of the characteristics of World Class University as stated by Jamil Salmi are, 1. Has an international reputation for its research and teaching and have Identity on its research strengths with number of research stars and world leaders in their fields. 2. Is recognized not only by other world class universities but also outside the world of higher education and operates within a global market 3. Generates innovative ideas and produces basic and applied research in abundance and Produces groundbreaking research output recognized by peers and prizes (for example, Nobel Prize winners). 4. Attracts the most able students and produces the best graduates. 5. Can attract and retain the best staff and students from an international market. 6. Has a very sound financial base and receives large endowment capital and income (for example, government, private sector, research income and overseas student fees). Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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7. Has diversified sources of income Provides a high-quality and supportive research and educational environment for both its staff and its students (for example, highquality buildings and facilities/high-quality campus). 8. Has a first-class management team with strategic vision and implementation plans. 9. Produces graduates who end up in positions of influence and/or power. 10. Often has a long history of superior achievement and makes a big contribution to society and our times Hence the present notion of World Class University Ranking rests heavily upon excellence in research at the height of the tertiary and higher education hierarchy in the measure of the various international rankings. Prevalent Ranking of Universities: Broad standard assessments of institutions across national borders are based on objective or subjective data (or both) obtained from the universities themselves or from the public domain focusing mostly on international reputation combining subjective inputs (such as peer reviews and employer recruiting surveys), quantitative data (including the numbers of international students and faculty), academic and research performance of faculty, the influence of the faculty (as represented by research citations) and exclusive international awards. Until recently the process involved a subjective qualification mostly that of reputation. For example Ivy League universities in the United States such as Harvard, Yale or Columbia, the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the United Kingdom and the University of Tokyo have traditionally been counted among the exclusive group of elite universities. Some of the prevalent University rankings worldwide are, •

The first closely watched worldwide league table was created by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2003 relying heavily on scientific research.

•

In 2004 the Times Higher Education Supplement launched its own ranking in partnership with Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). THE split from QS (which now has created its own ranking methodology and ranking lists) and created a new ranking methodology whose citation database information is compiled in partnership with Thomson Reuters based on the main focus on reputation survey.

•

In 2009 QS launched the QS Asian University Rankings in partnership with the Chosun Ilbo newspaper in Korea. It ranks the top 200 Asian universities since 2011. In the QS (2011) World University rankings for social sciences five Indian institutions have been featured in the top 200 institutions in the world. It is claimed that the QS World University Rankings by Subject are the first to rank universities for individual subjects in the world.

•

The CHE-German Universities (DAAD-Die Zeit) ranking is exclusively subject specific (35 subjects) and not institution-based meant to assist the prospective students to make an informed choice of university.

•

Academic Ranking of World University (ARWU) among the most popular one considers university that has any Nobel laureates, fields’ medallists, highly cited

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researchers or papers published in nature or science. It includes Science Citation Index-Expanded (SCIE) and Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) also. •

The Centre for Science and Technology Studies (CWTS) Leiden Ranking (2014) ranks the universities with the largest contribution in international scientific journals based on the data from the web of science bibliographic database produced by Thomson Reuters.

•

The Higher Education Evaluation and Accreditation Council of Taiwan (HEEACT) ranks universities based on performance of scientific papers with interpretation of bibliometric indicators from Thomson Reuters database.

•

Multidimensional U-Multirank (U-Map) is a user driven independent ranking with seed funding from the European Union. It compares the performance of HEIs in the five broad dimensions of university activities such as teaching and learning, research, knowledge transfer, international orientation and regional engagement.

•

Since 2004 the Webometrics international rankings are compiled by the Cybermetrics Lab, a research group of the Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales (CCHS) in Spain. They compare 20,000 world tertiary education institutions on scales of 1 to 5 across several areas that measure visibility on the internet as a proxy of the importance of the institution.

NIRF framework in India: Soon after becoming independent India placed science and technology high on its economic development agenda Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) were established, however initially criticized for their contribution to the brain drain but today with the opening and fast growth of the Indian economy this weakness is turning into a brain gain. The Planning Commission initiated in its policy perspective to attract global talent through public-private partnership and setting up of innovative universities aiming at world class standards. In India it was the India Today which initiated the process of ranking colleges in 1997. At present the national assessment and accreditation agency (NAAC) assesses the HEIs in India and grade them but did not venture to rank them in serial order. NIRF envisages separate rankings for different categories of institutions in their own respective peer groups. According to the union HRD minister, Smriti Irani, the ranking framework will empower a larger number of Indian Institutions to participate in the global rankings and create a significant impact internationally too. Our NIRF framework is a moderated version of QS and is self-reporting. Though all central and state universities will be part of it one can hope good institutions from private as well as other sectors will also hope to be part of rankings. This national ranking will be based on five broad generic parameters as, (1) Teaching, Learning and Resources (2) Research, Consulting and Collaborative Performance (3) Graduation Outcomes (4) Outreach and Inclusivity (5) Perception. The main features envisioned in NIRF are, 1. Recommendation to set-up a Committee to administer the implementation of ranking work for the first year after which a suitable Ranking Agency duly authorized to receive and verify the data and declare the rankings may be set up.

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2. This document identified a set of suitable forms in which these parameters can be easily measured and verified across a variety of universities and colleges. 3. A strategy has been suggested for calculating scores to measure the performance of the universities and colleges across each such parameter. This will help to obtain an overall score for obtaining the institution rank. 4. Separate ranking formulae for universities and colleges has been suggested to ensure that institutions are compared within an appropriate peer group of institutions, and provided a level-playing field. 5. A system for data collection from public bodies and random sample checks has been suggested for each parameter. 6. In view of the distinct primary mandate and objectives of universities and colleges, separate ranking has been designed for these two distinct categories of institutions. 7. In view of the absence of a reliable and comprehensive database that could supply all relevant information required for computing the scores for ranking, it is imperative that the university and colleges desirous of participating in the ranking exercise will be required to provide the data in the prescribed format. 8.

In view of the diversity in nature and primary mandate the HEIs categories has been distinguished as follows, Category A: Institutions engaged in Research and Teaching. Category B: Institutions engaged primarily in Teaching. Category B institution may choose to be ranked in both categories.

For scoring purpose ranking parameters for universities and colleges are as given in the table 1 and 2 respectively. No.

Parameters

Marks

1. 1 (a)

Teaching, Learning and Resources (TLR) – 0.30 Weightage Faculty – Student Ratio with emphasis on PermanentFaculty (FSR)

100 20

1 (b)

Combined Metric for Faculty with PhD and Experience(FQE)

1 (c)

Metric for Library and Laboratory Facilities (LL)

1 (d)

Metric for Sports Facilities and Extra-Curricular Activities(SEC)

Research Productivity, Impact and IPR (RPII) – 0.40 Weightage

100

2 (a)

Combined Metric for Publications (PU)

2 (b)

Combined Metric for Citations(CI)

2(c)

Intellectual Property Right (IPR)

Graduation Outcome (GO) – 0.15 Weightage

100

3 (a)

Combined Performance in University Examinations (UE) Marks

3 (b)

Combined Performance in Public Examinations (PE)

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Outreach and Inclusivity (OI) – 0.15 Weightage

100

4 (a)

Outreach Footprint(Continuing Education, Services) (CES)

4 (b)

Percentage of Students from Other States/Countries (Region DiversityRD)

4 (c)

Percentage of Women Students and Faculty

4 (d)

Percentage of Economically and Socially Disadvantaged Students (ESDS)

4 (e)

Facilities for Differently Abled Persons (DAP)

Perception (PR) – 0.10 Weightage

100

5 (a)

Process for Peer Rating in Category (PR)

5 b)

Application to Seat Ratio (SR)

(Ranking Parameters and Metrics for Ranking Universities-adopted from NRIF document)

No.

Parameters

Marks

Teaching, Learning and Resources (TLR) – 0.40 Weightage

100

1 (a)

Faculty – Student Ratio with emphasis on Permanent Faculty (FSR)

1 (b)

Combined Metric for Faculty with PhD and Experience(FQE)

1 (c)

Metric for Library and Laboratory Facilities (LL)

1 (d)

Metric for Sports Facilities and Extra-Curricular Activities (SEC)

Research Productivity, Impact and IPR (RPII) – 0.20 Weightage

100

2 (a)

Combined Metric for Publications (PU)

2 (b)

Combined Metric for Citations(CI)

2(c)

Intellectual Property Right (IPR)

Graduation Outcome (GO) – 0.15 Weightage

100

3(a)

Combined Performance in University Examinations (UE

3 (b)

Combined Performance in Public Examinations (PE)

4. 4 (a)

Outreach and Inclusivity (OI) – 0.15 Weightage Outreach Footprint(Continuing Education, Services) (CES

100 25

4 (b)

Percentage of Students from Other States/Countries (Region DiversityRD)

4 (c)

Percentage of Women Students and Faculty

4 (d)

Percentage of Economically and Socially Disadvantaged Students (ESDS)

4 (e)

Facilities for Differently Abled Persons

5. 5 (a)

Perception (PR) – 0.10 Weightage Process for Peer Rating in Category (PR)

100 50

5 (b)

Application to Seat Ratio (SR)

(Ranking Parameters and Metrics for Ranking Colleges-adopted from NRIF document)

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Conclusion: Ranking of university is a multi-dimensional concept like Beauty, it lies in the eyes of the beholder and it is largely a matter of perception. It is a composite index covering a wide selection of parameters. Academic freedom and institutional autonomy are important challenge to build world class universities. While India has created several (world) reputed institutions in diverse fields with the active support of the government their conversion into world class universities would need major strategic inventiveness as well as careful execution. We need two dimensions, the first one of an external nature concerning the role of government at the national and state levels making the resources available to enhance the stature of HEIs to attain the new world class universities and the second dimension of internal nature dealing with the individual institutions themselves making them to transform themselves into world class institutions. If India wants to shake off the third world country label then the responsibility of doing so must fall on the shoulders of the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s elite academicians. India needs national rankings and national data collection effort encouraging more universities to provide and share data hence the move of the MHRD is a step in right direction which incidentally will be the first ever such India-centric framework. We shall believe that the ranking framework developed for ranking universities and colleges will have wider appeal across universities and colleges. Thousands of institutions would volunteer themselves to the ranking exercise with an aim to assess themselves on the qualitative parameters used for ranking of institutions and move upward on the quality spectrum to improve their ranking in subsequent years. Reference: Altbach, P. (2012). Ranking Season is here. International Higher Education (62), 1-5. Jamil Salmi, The Challenge of Establishing World-Class Universities, The World Bank Report, Retrieved from the siteresources.worldbank.org/EDUCATION/ WCU.pdf. Powar, K. B. (2012). Expanding domains in Indian higher education. New Delhi, India: Association of Indian Universities Publications. Department of Higher Education, National institutional Ranking Framework (2015). MHRD, Government of India.

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Teaching-Learning through Social Media: An Interactive Educational Tool Jayatri Chakraborty Assistant Professor in Education, Serampore College, Hooghly, West Bengal, Pin -712201, E-mail: jayatrichakraborty@gmail.com & Susmita Basu Assistant Professor in Education, Haldia Govt. College, P.O: Debhog, Dist: Purba Medinipur, West Bengal, Pin code: 721657, E-mail: susmitabasu493@gmail.com ABSTRACT Social media and technology has penetrated our lives in a manner which is baffling. People of all age groups have come under its purview. The relentless flow of ideas that is generated and exchanged is startling. Knowledge sharing has assumed the form of experience which is enjoyable. This source needs to be applied to teaching –learning situations. Active involvement and orientation towards social media and through social media is the need of the hour. Time constraints, labour constraints can be eased through such usage. Fear of inquiry can be done away with. Preparation of learning material can become fruitful and interesting. Team teaching, activity based learning, learning through audio- visual medium can all be combined into one through purposeful implementation of social media. Online teaching learning forums can pave the way for remedial instruction. Fear of learning and questioning can be sidelined. Weak students can have a way out though such learning portals. Instant knowledge has its share of risk also. It is high time to accept the emergence of social media and through supervision, implement it. This paper is a study of 200 students and teachers of the arts stream in colleges of Kolkata. It showed that there exists a relation between social media and academic performance of students, collaboration in teaching and learning, in creation of a virtual learning community. The relations were found to be statistically significant. This adds to the fact that the entry of social media need no longer be restricted in academic pursuit.

Key Words: Social Media, Purview, Teaching- Learning, Audio-Visual, Learning Portal Introduction: Presently we are living in the age of technological advancement. Social media networking is an essential ingredient of this HITECH era. Social media provides a common platform to share and communicate our views and opinions about the happenings around us.Social media is “the relationship that exists between networks of people”. (Walter & Riviera, 2004 as cited in Wang, Chen & Liang ,p.3). Today people of different ages are addicted by social media. According to a survey conducted on July 2011,“Facebook passed 750 million users, Linkedin had over 100 million members, Twitter had over 177 million tweets per day, and You tube reached three billion views per day.(Chen & Bryer,2012 as cited in Guy ,p.1). Social media provides a virtual life enriched with friends and followers. So, social media has made its vulnerable impact in our day to day life .The use of social media has many spheres: • • • • •

Advertisement and marketing Sharing updated information, Recreational activities, Social sharing & Communicating with others, Communicating during emergency (floods, earthquake) etc.

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Today, social media networking mean much more than face book and whatsapp. It is an online technology which allows us to connect and collaborate with various sources of information. Social media feeds the need of present information explosion era. Tamaya, Sacha & Cruz (2014) stated that there are so many schools which grab the educational opportunity of social media technology. So social media networking has an educational context. The present study is an attempt to find out the answers of this questions that how social media can be used in the context of teaching-learning? What do the students and teachers feel? How the application of the social media sites can be fruitful in the academic context. Over a past few years a considerable amount of research has been conducted on social media. Our present work address an obvious question that do we really care about educational application and scope of social media networking. Review of Literature: The following literatures reflect the relationship between social media use and academic context in both Indian perspective and in global perspective. Wang, Chen & Liang (2011) in their study suggested that “an approach is needed to better balance the relationship between social media and academic study”. (p.9). Jovanovich, Chiong & Weise (2012) is of the opinion that social media networking provides the opportunity of ‘social interaction’, ‘content sharing’ and ‘collective intelligence’. Tariq, Mehboob, Khan & Ullah (2012) in their study stated that social media sites have a negative impact on education and it could ruin the future of teenagers and children.(p.409). Kalia (2013) in his study examined the perception of the youth (18-25 years age group) towards the use of social media as an educational tool. The results of the study conclude that “our education system needs change and social media should be widely utilized for the educational purposes.” (p.43). Vandoorn and Eklund (2013) in their study on “face to facebook: social media and the learning and teaching potential of symmetrical, synchronous communication” stated that “social media offers teachers and learners exciting opportunities to communicate”. In this context they emphasized the importance of web 2.0 and its synchronous communication platforms. Objectives of the study: The present study has the following objectives: 1. To study whether social media can be used as an educational tool. 2. To study the perception of college students towards the use of social media as a teaching-learning tool. 3. To study the perception of college teachers towards the use of social media as a teaching-learning tool. 4. To find out the feasibility of social media networking at the college level. 5. To find out the difference in opinion of teachers and students regarding social media as a teaching-learning tool. Methodology: Research Design: The study was designed on descriptive research methodology. Survey method of descriptive research methodology was used. Chi-square was used to analyse data. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Sample: The sample size consisted of 100 college students (boys and girls) and 100 college teachers (male and female) from various colleges of Kolkata district in West Bengal. Proportionate stratified random sampling is used for sampling purpose. The respondents were provided a questionnaire based on their experience. Only arts stream was considered. Table: 1 Arts stream Teachersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and Studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; division Teachers

Students

Male

Female

Male

Female

Variables: The independent variable is social media. The dependent variables are teachinglearning. Tools: Questionnaire was used to collect data from students and teachers. In addition, the researchers went through the tool in detail and then the pilot study was carried out in various colleges. Data analysis techniques: Descriptive analysis of the same was done. Chi-square test was done to test the null hypothesis. As the sample size was small, this non-parametric test was preferred. Hypothesis: Ho1: There is no relation between social media and promotion of self-learning opportunity as per the opinion of students and teachers. . Ho2: There is no relation between academic performance and social media as per the opinion of students and teachers.. Ho3: There is no relation in meeting of social and cognitive needs and social media as per the opinion of students and teachers.. Ho4: There is no relation in creation of a collaborative teaching -learning environment and social media as per the opinion of students and teachers. Ho5: There is no relation in creation of a virtual learning community and social media as per the opinion of students and students. Findings:

Table 2:

Category

Yes

Undecided

Total

Students

76(63)

24(30)

0(7)

100

Teachers

50(63)

36(30)

14(7)

100

Total

126

200

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Chi-square value 21.76

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The computed value of x2 value for degree of freedom=2 is 21.76. This is much higher than the table value of 5.991at .05 level and 9.210 at .01 levels respectively. Hence the x2 value can be taken to be significant at both the levels. We can reject the null hypothesis (H01) at both the levels. Table 3: Category

Yes

Undecided

Total

Students

35(45) 30(34)

35(21)

100

Teachers

55(45) 38(34)

7(21)

100

200

Total

Chi-square value 24.04

The computed value of x2 value for degree of freedom=2 is 24.04. This is much higher than the table value of 5.991at .05 level and 9.210 at .01 levels respectively. Hence the x2 value can be taken to be significant at both the levels. We can reject the null hypothesis(H02) at both the levels. Table 4: Category

Yes

Undecided Total

Students

70(61) 20(29)

10(10)

100

Teachers

52(61) 38(29)

10(10)

100

200

Total

122

Chi-square value

8.24

The computed value of x2 value for degree of freedom=2 is 8.24. This is more than the table value of 5.991at .05 level but less than the table value of 9.210 at .01 level. Hence the x2 value can be taken to be significant at .05 levels but not at .01 levels. We can reject the null hypothesis (H03) at .05 levels. Table 5: Category

Yes

Undecided Total

Students

75(65) 20(22.5)

5(12.5)

100

Teachers

55(65) 25(22.5)

20(12.5)

100

200

Total

130

Chi-square value

12.64

The computed value of x2 value for degree of freedom=2 is 10.8. This is more than the table value of 5.991at .05 level and 9.210 at .01 levels respectively. Hence the x2 value can be taken to be significant at both the levels. We can reject the null hypothesis (H04) at both the levels.

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Table 6: Category

Yes

Undecided

Total

Students

64(62)

30(25)

6(13)

100

Teachers

60(62)

20(25)

20(13)

100

Total

124

200

Chi-square value

9.66

The computed value of x2 is higher than both the critical values of x2 at .05 and .01 levels (5.991 and 9.210 respectively). Hence it is taken to be significant at both levels. The null hypothesis (H05) is rejected at both the levels. Graphical Presentation: Figure: 1

Figure: 2

The following graphs are based on the responses to an item namely Which areas do social media contribute to: (ranking from 1 to 5) 1. Make them prone to questioning 2. Create a blog to discuss over various upcoming issues. 3. Fulfilling various social learning purposes. 4. Recreational activities.5. Expansion of knowledge.

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Figure: 3

Figure: 4

Discussion: The study has amply demonstrated that social media has made its presence felt in our lives and has elevated self- learning. Individuals need to know where to draw the line, but learning on one’s own has become easy. Social media has affected academic performance. The opportunities provided are galore and exchange of ideas enhances knowledge. This in turn helps to arouse and satiate one’s cognitive, emotional and social needs. Forging relationships has become the trend and has created a forum where an extended family like situation is developed via social media. Automatically, expansion of knowledge takes place, a knowledge forum is created. Collective learning through collaboration of teaching methods has been a positive contribution of social media, which is true for this sample. The study has also pointed that a virtual community of learning is formed, which is a consequence of the use of social media. Therefore, without ruling out the ill-effects of social media, it can be said that the positive impact is also huge. It needs to be carefully utilised for future. Delimitation: The sample is delimited within arts stream teachers’ and students’ excluding science and commerce stream.

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Conclusion: Integrating social media networking into teaching-learning process is one of the latest advancement of technology. Social media can be used as a source to gain enriched learning experience. So, it is high time to utilize these benefits of social media into educational context. The present study is an attempt to find out the answer that how the application of the social media sites can be fruitful in the academic context? The present study has an implication for all the stakeholders (teachers, teacher educators, students, parents, educational administrators). Some of the most unique ways to integrate social media into teachinglearning context are: •

Creating a blog by teachers to share necessary information.

•

Creating a social media page for various subjects.

•

Presenting papers and assignments through online video.

•

The teachers can provide lecture through online video presentation.

•

Creating and involving group project.

•

It is a great way to provide immediate feedback to the students.

•

Creating subject group by the students.

•

It is a great way to promote and demonstrate self learning.

•

Social media offers everyone an exciting opportunity to communicate.

•

It offers optimum opportunity to engage in practical work.

•

It encourages collaboration instead of isolation.

•

Social media expands the scope of distance education.

So, social media can provide immense educational opportunity for both the teachers and students but alongside it is essential to check students activities on social networking sites and aware them about cybercrime. Finally it can be concluded that for successful integration of social media into educational context depends on our concern about when, where, why and with whom to use social media. References Guy, R.(2012).THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA FOR ACADEMIC PRACTICE: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Kentucky Journal of Higher Education Policy and Practice, volume 1, issue 2, 1-20. Retrieved from: http://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=kjhepp Jovanovic, J., Chiong, R., & Weise,T.(2012). Social Networking, Teaching, and Learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Information, Knowledge and Management, volume 7, 40-43. Retrieved from: http://www.ijikm.org/Volume7/IJIKMv7p039-043Editorial572.pdf Kalia, G.(2013). A Research Paper on Social media: An Innovative Educational Tool.Issues and Ideas in Education, volume 1,43-50. Retrieved from: http://iie.chitkara.edu.in/pdf/papers/mar_2013/03_IIE.pdf Tamayo,J.D., Sacha,G., & Cruz, G.D.(2014).The Relationship of Social Media with the academic Performance of Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Students of Centro Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Escolar University- Malolas. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, volume 4, issue 5, 1-10. Retrieved from: http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0514/ijsrpp29125.pdf Tariq,W., Mehboob, M.,Khan, M.A & Ullah, F.(2012). The Impact of Social Media and Social Networks on Education and Students of Pakistan. IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science, volume 9, no 3, 407-411. Retrieved from: http://www.ijcsi.org/papers/IJCSI-9-4-3-407-411.pdf VanDoorn, G., Eklund,A.A.(2013). Face to Facebook: Social media and the learning and teaching potential of symmetrical Sychronous Communication. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, volume 10, issue 1, article 6, 1-14. Retrieved from: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1005279.pdf Wang,Q., Chen,W., & Liang,Y.(2011). The Effects of Social Media on College Students. MBA Student Scholarship. Paper 5, 1-12. Retrieved from: http://scholarsarchive.jwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=mba_student Internet http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/news/coverStories/2011/benefits_and_drawbacks.php

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Narayan Gnagopadhyer Nirbanchito Chhoto Galpo Samikshan Rumpa Bhadra Research Scholar, Department of Bengali, Ranchi University, E-mail: rumpabhadra80@gmail.com ABSTRACT The period of Bengali Short Story of Narayan Gangopadhaya is from 1918 to 1970. He wrote so many stories over a long period. Life is raised to the level of eternity in his stories. He added a special touch in his writing. They are excessively bold, unprecedented. The source of his powerful writing was his personal experience and perception. They are no doubt quite indifferent from other. He had form of studies. His field of work was completely unpremeditated way for the middle class sentiments. He worked as a common person in different local areas. Romantic emotion was the main solicitation of Narayan Gangopadhaya. He always tried to establish his characters as a human loving. They have thirst for a benefited life, as well as wealth and other. But finally they detached themselves from their contemporary desire. The aim of present article is to highlight Narayan Gangopadhaya as keen intelligent and daring short story writer of Bengali.

The short story can be anything the author decides, it can be anything from the death of a horse to a young girl’s first love affair. A short story can be written with any subject matter. Dante and Bocaccio agreed with this subject matter. Agar has been told that anything which can be read story. Taking anything any short story can be written. Brander Mathuse has told in his writing. The philosophy of the short story; “A true short story is something other and something more than a more story which is short…it deals with a single character, a single event, a single emotion or the series of emotion, a single situation.” In 1885 Adgar Alen Poe has told his in book ‘Twice Told Tells’ that a short story should be such that which can be read continuously and finished at the same time. It must be in a short form not like a drama or fiction. During the nineteen twenty a famous critic owe dmore has remarried about the characterization of short story – “In a short story, to wit, any incident, any story of adamsel, description of a character, narration of a wonderful thing, the story of a daily life of a dishonest merchant and other various takes may be employed”. The main story of a short story must be very attractive and readers must remain pages to know the neat happening. Word famous poet Rabindranath Tagore has given a very wonderful definition of short story in his poem – “Chhoto Pran Chhoto Byatha Chhoto chhoto dukaho Katha Nitantai Sahoj Sral Sahashra bistrito Rashi Pratyaha jetechhe vasi Taharey du charti ashrujal Wahi barnanar chhata Ghatonar ghano ghata Nahi tattoo nahi upodesh Antare atripti robe Sanga kari mone habe Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Shesh hayeo haila na shesh.” Graham Balforke Steven son has told the characteristics of short story in this way – “There are as far as I know, three ways and only of writing a short story. You may take a plot and sit characters to it or you may take a character and choose incidents and situation to develop it or lastly you must bear with me while try to make this clear you may take a certain atmosphere and get action and persons to realize it.” Narayan Gangapadhaya was born in 1918 AD at Baliadagi of the District Dinajpur, Uttarbanga. During early childhood he was known as Narayan, his friends called him Nadi, his name was given by Tarak Nath Gangopadhaya. Pramathanath Gangopadhaya was his father. He was police Inspector by occupation. Narayan Gangapadhaya had lost his mother in his early childhood. His mother was a very kind hearted lady. Narayan Gangopadhaya was very intelligent in his student life. He got his early education at Dinajpur Primary School. He passed Matriculation Examination from the High School of Dinajpur. Later on he took admission in Faridpur Rajendra College. He passed I.A. from this school in 1993. During this time Narendra Nath was his best friend. Narayan Gangapadhaya passed B.A. from Barishal Raj Mohan College. He passed M.A. from Calcutta University in the First Division. Later on he joined at Jalpaiguri Ahanda Chandra College in 1942 A.D. After that he joined in City College in 1945 A.D. He joined in Calcutta University in 1956 AD. He got D. Phil. in 1960 for his writing ‘Sahitye Chhoto Galpo’. Narayan Gangapadhaya got married with Renu Gangapadhaya in 1940. But this marriage was not successful. So his second marriage was with Asha Devi. He had one daughter named ‘Basabi’ and one son named ‘Arijit Gangapadhaya’. Narayan Gangapadhaya has critically analysed various aspects of life in his short stories. The life period of Narayan was from second decade of to seventh decade of twentieth century. He had taken plots and event from happening of this period secular, political, social, economic, science, philosophy, arts, culture etc. Narayan Gangapadhaya wrote his famous collection of short stories named ‘Sahitye Chhoto Golpo’ and got D. Phil. award in 1960 A.D. He was lifelong professor in the Department of Bengali in Kolkata University. He got several award in the field of Bengali literature. His short story named ‘Etihas’ was selected in the highest rank in the competition of ‘Chhoto Galpo’ in Kolkata (Katha Shipli). Editor of Katha Shilpi were Radha Rani Devi and Narendra Dev. He got ‘Anand Reward’ by the magazine “Ananda Bazar’. He got Sarojini Gold Medal from Calcutta University. He got ‘Basumati Sahitya Reward from the dash patent. He also got ‘Ranjit Smrity’ Reward along with all these awards and his greatest achievement cause getting popularity and love from the people and studies. His short story character Sundarlal is unparallel and everlasting in the history of short stories. Sundarlal is the character of his short story ‘Bitansh’ Sundarlal left his society and grew in Santhal Pargana. He had made common and innocent people foolish and gathered a large wealth. He was also the messenger of laboures of tea garden in Asam. In Bengali literature Narayan Gangopadhaya was a very great short story writer. We got different aspects of life in his different short stories. He was unique in character and composing short story. His writing has a great importance in the world literature.

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In the second part of ‘Sahitya Chhoto Galo’ Narayan Gangapadhaya was unique character. According to his view short story is the perfect opportunity to perfect him. He had multipurpose character and achievement in the literature of Bengali. We can understand him only in his writing. We get various aspects like world war, draught, flood, freedom, struggle, social problems, economic problem, political situation etc. Narayan Gangapadhaya has written many short stories during his whole life period. We can identify Narayan Gangapadhaya only in his short stories. Humanity Social-awareness, romanticism etc. are the main features of his short stories. He was successful and unique in this way or concept. The short stories of Narayan Gangopadhaya are unique in Character and feature which is would class. ‘Bitansha’ is his famous short story. ‘Sunderlal’ is the character of this short story. The name of such but it is totally different from its name; Sunderlal had left his family and society. He grew in Ianthal pargana among the Santhal Tribes at the foot hills. He had gathered wealth be cheating the simple and honest Santhal tribes. He had also joined in the tea Garden of Assam. He wanted to offer young girls Budhni to the British Officer of the Tea Garden. The word ‘Bitansha’ means net where anybody may be caught and cannot not get rid from this net. ‘Harh’ is another famous short story composed by him. He had taken plot from the Second World War. Raibahadur is a character of this short story. He is educated but non employment. He collected bones and used them to make chanting and collect wealth. He is the representative of the rich Burjoya class who wants only wealth and desire to fulfill selfishness. In this story writer has indicated towards the miserable condition of the poor and neglected people. ‘Nakracharita’ short story is unique and famous in which the author had reflected the draught caused in Bengali era 1350. In this story Nishikanta is a money leader and black market. He leads a luxurious life style in the society. Nishikant is the secretary of the Labour Union Board. He is very canning character and dishonest in nature. To fulfill all the illegal works and exploit innocent people he himself was chairman of the union board. ‘Dushhashan’ Short story is taken from his collection of short stories ‘Dushhashan’. It was published in 1952. Its plot was taken, from Second World War. Sushhashan is the main character of this short story. He is character of this short story. He is characterless in nature. The story of Mahabharata is reflected there. Maternal uncle Shakuni is the representative of Devil mind evolving in may illegal unsocial activities Draopadi demands justice but fails to get any type of social justice. ‘Top’ short story is composed taking plots from Jamindary system. Rajabahadur is the land lord of the Ram Ganga Estate. He becomes happy be exploiting month and wealth from the poor and innocent farmers. ‘Ustab Mehera Khan’ Short story was composed taking plot from the communal conflicts of the society in 1946 AD. During the riots of 1946 Hindu-Muslim Conflicts there creates a very miserable because he was Muslim in caste communal Rot is the curse in society. ‘Puskara’ is also a very important story in which critical situation of the draught we described. Money leaders get maximum benefit and in this situation they exploit money and Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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wealth from the common honest helpless people from the society. Different kind of diseases destroy of lives of lives of the helpless people from the society Different kinds of diseases destroy the lives of the helpless poor people. ‘Vanga Chashma’ short story is related to the Second World War. The character of this short is first class M.A. He is school teacher gets payment Rs. 60/-. During the Second World War he faced miserable situation such as black-marketing, exploitation etc. Relief camps were set up everywhere. The school teacher left his school and he joined in a relief camp to get more money. But very soon he came to know that in relief camp there is no peace and honesty. There is only cheating dishonest. Money is not distributed among the needy persons. Officers become wealthy by exploitation and looting fund money. ‘Mantulshi’ a short story is romantic in nature. In this story eternal love is shown. Ranjan is the main character of this story real love is eternal and divine. Landlord Chandra Choudhury was of Kumar Daha village. An elephant named Nilbahadur is his companion. The author has described the conflict of common people with the landlord. ‘Jantaba’ a short story is relaxed about the human and nature. It is different from the other short stories. The author has stream more about the nature. We are destroying our surrounding so nature also cause & natural harmful effects such as flood, draught, earthquake etc. In our real life there are various kinds of effects such as love, hate, hate betray, happiness, sorrow etc. struggle is everywhere struggle for survival is the crucial theme of the nature. ‘Falashruti’ short story is related to the experience of Journey in various places such as Rajgir of Bihar, Nalanda etc. The experience of Train Journey was very interesting, culture, tradition of people in various place are different. Travelling is very important in pure life which brings new life and encourages us. It is a means of education also. ‘Ekti Shatruer Kahini’ is a different short story in which the author has written about the unsuccessful efforts of spreading Christian religion in Indian by different British – Missionaries among them padre Donalds who did not get success in his mission one rural Santa become Christian who came to know as Joseph Immanuel, who could not forget his own culture and tradition. He joined in Shiv Dance and caught sight of other Christian missionary. Conclusion In this way we see that Narayan Gangapadhaya torches every aspect of life in his short stories. He was skillful and unique in writing short story. Narayan Gangapadhaya has described various aspects of lives in his different short stories. He is different from other contemporary short story writers. He is no doubt a successful short story writer. He has composed short stories just watching the needs of the society so that people would become aware about their rights and duties. People would decide what is fruitful to them. People of the society must protest against the unfair – activities injustice, social exploitation, social evils and other unsocial activities. Different happening such as world war, draught, social conflict, communal riot, division of country economic problem, political instability, terrorist, classism etc. has come in his all short stories. He has critical analyzed all there concepts in his short stories.

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Bibliography Babita Kar, Rabindranather Galpoguchha, Publisher – Ashim Sankar, Sahitya Sangi, 6D, Kolkata 700 000, 1st Published – 24th July, 2014. Rabindra Nath Tagore, Kahini, Publisher – Swapan Majumder, Biswa Bharati 6, Kolkata – 17, Published 24 Falgun Bengali, 1306. Rabindra Nath Tagore, Shrestha Galpo, Publisher – Sudharnsu Shekhar Dey, Deys Publishing, Kolkata 73, 1st Publish – May 2011. Sri Narendra Nath Chakraborty, Bangla Chhoto Galpo, Sankhipta Samalochana, Publish – Sri Dinesh Chandra Basu, Modern Book Agency, Kolkata – 12. Sri Bhudev Choudhary, Publish – Bangala Era 1357, Bangla Sahiter Chhoto Galpo o’ Galpokar, Publisher – Sri Dinesh Chandra Basu, Kolkata – 12. Shashi Bhushan Dasgupta, Bangla Sahityer Ek Dik, Orient Book Comp. Kolkata – 73. Saroj Mohan Mitra, Tara Shankar, baktimanas o’ Shristi, Kolkata 1st Publisher – 1335 Bangla Era. Swami Saradananda, Bibidh Prasanga, Publisher – Ganendra Nath, Kolkata, 1st Publish – 1335 Bangla Era. Narayan Gangopadhyay, Sahitye Chhoto Galpo, publish Nitya Ghosh, Publishe on 1405 Bangla Era, Kolkata. Saroj Datta, Katha Sahityik Narayan Gangopadhay, Publisher Ratna Boli, Kolkata.

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Opinion of the Teachers and Secondary Students towards the Development of Scholastic, Co-Scholastic and Co-Curricular Activities of CCE in CBSE Schools S. Shanthi Research scholar, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, E-mail: shanthirsunder@gmail.com & Dr. A. Subramanian Assistant Professor, Department of Education, University of Madras ABSTRACT This study is to know the opinion of Teachers and Secondary students towards the development of Scholastic, Co-scholastic and Co-curricular activities of CCE in CBSE schools. The study has been conducted among 98 teachers and 490 secondary students of CBSE schools. The researcher used stratified random sampling in the study. Three schools from urban locality and three schools from rural locality have selected out of 22 schools in the Krishnagiri Educational district.

Key Words: Secondary Students, Scholastic, Co-scholastic, Co-curricular, CCE, Continuous, Comprehensive, Evaluation, CBSE Introduction The term CCE (Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation) is widely used in the recent years in school education. The major emphasis of CCE is on the continuous growth of students ensuring their intellectual, emotional, physical, cultural and social development and therefore, it will not be merely limited to assessment of learner’s scholastic attainments. CCE uses assessment as a means of motivating learners to provide feedback and follow up work to improve upon the learning in the classroom and to present a comprehensive picture of a learner’s profile. It includes assessment in Scholastic as well as Co-Scholastic aspects of the pupil’s growth. Scholastic aspects include curricular areas or subject specific areas, whereas CoScholastic aspects include Life Skills, Attitudes and Values and Co-Curricular Activities. Frame Work of Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation l----Formative Assessment (FA) l l---1. -SCHOLASTIC AREAS--- ------ l l l l l----Summative Assessment (SA) l l l l l l----Life Skills l l l l----Work Education CCE----l---2.Co-Scholastic Areas------------------l Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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l l----Visual & Performing l l l l----Attitudes & Values l l l l l--Activities (Literary, Scientific, IT & leadership) l I l 3.Co-Curricular Activities -----------l l l-- Health & Physical Education Evaluation of Scholastic Areas: An academic is divided into two terms and in each term there will be two FAs and one SA. Formative assessment totals to 40% and summative assessment totals to 60% and grades are given on a 9 point grading scale. Evaluation of Co-Scholastic and Co-Curricular Areas: Assessment in Co-scholastic and Co-curricular areas is done once at the end of the academic year on 5 point grading scale. Need and Background of the Study In the traditional system of assessment, the students were under stress. The children were assessed only by the marks scored not based on their multi talents. The assessment system was based only on rote memory. This led to many drop outs and suicides. Even the students who scored high marks struggled a lot to cope up in higher studies. In no way the examinations helped them to improve their confidence level. It has also not helped them to think in a divergent manner. In international ranking of universities India is not even in the first hundred. This is not only in education, in sports and fitness too. This is due to lack of skills. This is the reason for the educationist to introduce CCE. The present study has been taken to know the impact of CCE on CBSE schools. Objectives of the Study The major objective of the study is to find out the opinion of teachers and secondary students on the functioning of CCE in CBSE Schools of Krishnagiri Educational district in total. The specific objectives were, To measure the level of the functioning of the scholastic, co-scholastic and co-curricular activities of CCE among the teachers and secondary students in CBSE schools. To measure the level of the scholastic activities of CCE among CBSE secondary Students with respect to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation in CBSE schools. To measure the level of the co-scholastic activities of CCE among CBSE secondary Students with respect to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation in CBSE schools. To measure the level of the co-curricular activities of CCE among CBSE secondary Students with respect to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation in CBSE schools. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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To measure the level of the scholastic activities of CCE among CBSE teachers with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. To measure the level of the co-scholastic activities of CCE among CBSE teachers with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. To measure the level of the co-curricular activities of CCE among CBSE teachers with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. Hypotheses of the Study The framed Null Hypotheses are given below, 1) There is no significant difference in the functioning of CCE among the teachers and secondary students CBSE schools in total. 2) There is no significant difference in the functioning CCE among the teachers and secondary students in CBSE schools with respect scholastic, co-scholastic and cocurricular activities in total. 3) There is no significant difference in the level of scholastic activities of CCE among the secondary students of CBSE schools with regard to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation etc., 4) There is no significant difference in the level of co-scholastic activities of CCE among the secondary students of CBSE schools with regard to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation etc., 5) There is no significant difference in the level of co-curricular activities of CCE among the secondary students of CBSE schools with regard to the gender, locality, community, parents education and parents occupation etc., 6) There is no significant difference in the level of scholastic activities of CCE among the teachers of CBSE schools with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. 7) There is no significant difference in the level of co-scholastic activities of CCE among the teachers of CBSE schools with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. 8) There is no significant difference in the level of co-curricular activities of CCE among the teachers of CBSE schools with respect to the locality, basic qualification, professional qualification, teaching experience and classes handling. Methodology The present study belongs to Normative Survey research. The variables used in the study were Locality, Basic Qualification, Professional Qualification, Teaching Experience and Classes handling among the Teachers and Gender, Locality, Community, Parentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Education Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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and Parent’s Occupation among the Students. Two tools used in the study were questionnaires developed by the investigator to measure functioning of CCE among the teachers and secondary students in CBSE schools. In this study stratified random sampling technique was followed and the datas were collected from 490 Secondary Students of different CBSE Schools of Krishnagiri Educational district and the 98 teachers working in those schools. The Statistical Techniques used were mean, standard deviation and ‘t’ test, correlation coefficient and F-test. Findings There is significant difference among the Secondary students of CBSE schools between the 1) Scholastic and Co- Scholastic activities in total, with respect to Gender, Locality, BC, MBC and SC, Parents’ Education and Parents’ occupation 2) Co- Scholastic and Co-Curricular activities in total and with respect to Gender, Locality, Community, Parents’ Education and Parents’ occupation. 3) Scholastic and Co- Curricular activities in total, with respect to Gender, Locality, BC, MBC and SC, Parents’ Education and Parents’ occupation There is significant difference among the Teachers of CBSE schools between the 1) Scholastic and Co- Scholastic activities in total , with respect to rural locality, UG teachers, M.Ed. qualified teachers, teachers with teaching experience upto 10 years, experience above 20 years, teachers handling upper primary and secondary classes 2) Co-Scholastic Activity and Co-Curricular Activity activities among the Teachers of CBSE schools in total and among teachers of Urban locality, UG teachers, M.Ed. and M.Phil. qualified teachers, teachers with teaching experience of 11-20 years, experience above 20 years, teachers handling upper primary and secondary classes 3) Scholastic and Co-Curricular activities among the M.Phil. qualified teachers, teachers with teaching experience above 20 years and teachers handling upper primary classes There is no significant difference among the Secondary students of CBSE schools between the 1) Scholastic and Co- Scholastic activities among the OC students. 2) Scholastic and Co- Curricular activities among the OC students. There is significant difference among the Teachers of CBSE schools between the (1) Scholastic and Co- Scholastic activities among the teachers of Urban locality, B.Ed. qualified teachers, M.Phil.qualified teachers and teachers with teaching experience of 11 – 20 years. (2) Co-Scholastic and Co-Curricular activities among the Rural locality teachers, PG qualified teachers, B.Ed., qualified teachers and teachers with teaching experience up to 10 years. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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(3) Scholastic and Co-Curricular activities among among the Teachers of CBSE schools in total and among teachers of Rural and Urban locality, UG and PG teachers, B.Ed. and M.Ed. qualified teachers, teachers with teaching experience of upto 10 years and 11-20 yearsand teachers handling secondary classes. Conclusion CCE is an innovative method of assessment. It encourages holistic development in every student. It fosters confidence and creativity among the students. It is a very good tool for the teachers to assess the students. Co-scholastic and Co-curricular activities help the students to improve their creative thinking, critical thinking, their general behaviour with the fellow students, peer group and people they are surrounded with. Attitudes, values, aesthetic skills, health and physical fitness also contribute to the qualities. It develops divergent thinking, decision making and analytical among the student. Teachers’ role is vital in the implementation of CCE successfully. Here the teacher is no longer a teacher but mere facilitator. Teacher’s interaction with the taught is appreciated if it is in a non-threatening manner. In short, CCE, if implemented properly, a very good tool for the teachers to shape tomorrow’s citizens in the classrooms as responsible human beings. References CBSE, CCE manual for teachers , Classes VI-VIII (2010), New Delhi CBSE, CCE manual for teachers , Classes IX, X (2010), New Delhi Institute for Studies in Industrial Development, Quality Council of India, A final Report on Quality in School Education, New Delhi Programme for International Assessment (PISA) report, OECD, Paris (2012) Black, P., & William, D. (1998) Assessment and Classroom Learning, Assessment Education

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Employment Generation through Village Tourism Suman Das Guest Lecturer, Department of Geography, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar College, Betai, District - Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: suman.hlr.das@gmail.com ABSTRACT Rural tourism is currently the focus of attention throughout the world and is being recognized as an important instrument for growth of rural economy. Although India is rich with potential tourism destinations distributed over remote corners of the country, due priority has not been given to strengthening the tourism infrastructure of these destinations so that they can attract domestic as well as international tourists. Yet, if properly managed, rural tourism can reduce the existing backwardness of the rural community by diversifying employment opportunities based on local tourism assets. As some benefits may be obtained from tourist development, its inappropriate development will bring about losses and negative effects. Baranti, a tribal village is a small picturesque hamlet with a beautiful lake surrounded by hillocks and forest under Santuri Block of drought prone district of Purulia in West Bengal. Since last few years, Baranti has earned its fame as an important village tourism destination for Rarh area of West Bengal. Present paper throws a light on the development of village tourism in Baranti and its economic effect on the dwellers of this village. Survey has been done on the villagers, hoteliers, hotel workers of Baranti and privet car drivers of its surrounding villages to assess the economic changes took place during last few years. The main objective of this paper is to suggest a plan for the generation of employment through sustainable use of local resources and village tourism for the betterment of economic conditions of the villagers of Baranti.

Key Words: Tourism, Backwardness, Development, Village Tourism, Employment Concept of Village Tourism and Employment Generation: Any form of tourism that showcases the natural beauty, life, art, culture and heritage at rural locations, thereby benefiting the local community economically and socially as well as enabling interaction between the tourists and the locals for a more enriching tourism experience can be termed as village tourism. The development of a strong platform around the concept of Village Tourism is definitely useful for a country like India, where almost 74% of the population resides in its 7 million villages. This approach is also helpful for local level employment generation. Village Tourism has been viewed as offering an opportunity to empower local communities, particularly in developing countries, to develop a more appropriate grassroots form of sustainable tourism than mass tourism and to contribute to local economic development and poverty reduction. Selection of the Study Area: Village Baranti of Purulia District (Backward and Drought Prone) has been chosen for the study. Barhanti is a small hamlet in the Balitora Gram Panchayat (GP) within Santuri block of Puruliya district. The village is surrounded by beautiful lake, hillocks (Barhanti, Murhadi) and forests, the mouza-area extends from 23째 34' 12" N to 23째 35' 50" N and 86째 49' 55" E to 86째 51' 40" E. It is administratively surrounded by Berakurul mouza (J. L. No. 32) in the north, Dandahita (J. L. No. 34) in the east and Patpur in the south and Jibanpur (J. L. No. 52), Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Bheti (J. L. No. 48) and Patharabad (J. L. No. 49) mouza in the western part (Fig. 1). The total area of the mouza is 108.96 acre and its J.L. No. is 33. With 35 households, it contains a total of 225 populations (Census, 2001). Although the study area is small, it is possible to find some diversity in the distribution of the physical as well as socio-cultural attributes of the area. Geomorphologically, it is a part of dissected erosional plain, dominantly developed by fluvial and other geomorphic agents of erosion.

LOCATION OF WEST BENGAL IN INDIA

Fig.1. Location of the Study Area

Researcher from different discipline, i.e. Zoology, Botany, Geography, Tourism and History can select this place as an excursion site. For last few years (since 2005), the area has developed a lot and the income generation through village tourism has make difference in the livelihood pattern of the villagers. Several income groups, i.e., taxi driver, hotel workers, dance performer has engaged in the promotion of village tourism. Overall, a tribal village (89 % ST Population) like Baranti in the backward district set an example that how development can be achieved using local resources. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Objectives: •

Economic Profile of the Study Area.

•

Development of village tourism at Baranti.

•

Proposal for future employment generation through Sustainable Village Tourism.

Methodology: A reconnaissance visit was made to Barhanti in last week of February 2013. All the households were enlisted with number of male and female in each of them. This list of households was used to select the sample households in a later stage of the study. The cadastral map of Barhanti mouza (Revenue Survey map 1954-55) was scanned and georeferenced using Geomatica 10.1. The mouza boundary was digitized from this map. Satellite image (dated March 2nd, 2013) of the area was downloaded from Google Earth and georeferenced. The vectorized mouza boundary was then superimposed on the Google Earth image with KML (Keyhole Marker Line) format. Different land use / land cover types were visually identified and digitized. Different land classes (based on traditional classification) were also demarcated. Draft maps showing details of land use / land cover and land classes were prepared. With these draft maps a second visit was made to the village in second week of March 2013. A plot level field survey was carried out with the cadastral map. At each step of survey, villagers were consulted regularly and local/traditional knowledge on physical and cultural environments were given higher preference. In most cases villagers were given a role to scrutinize the draft maps. Thus quality and reliability of maps were enhanced to a greater extent. A door to door sample survey was carried out using random sampling method to collect primary data on socio-economic condition of the village. All these data and maps were then analyzed and a broad development framework for the studied village was worked out. Major Findings: Existing Economic Profile of the Study Area: Per-capita income: Figure 2, shows a holistic view which tells the contribution of each income class in making up a proper distribution of household groups by monthly income they earning. It is clear from the figure, more than 50% surveyed household comes under monthly income group of Rs. 1251 - 2000 whereas nearly 3% surveyed household having income more than Rs. 3000. It is also revealed that above 30 % of surveyed household fall under very low income group i.e. below Rs. 500.

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Fig. 2 Per-capita income Level of poverty: 100 % population survey has been conducted from where the percentages of APL and BPL category have been found. From the figure 3, a picture of the savings procedure of the villagers is also found. The economic condition of the dwellers of Baranti village is under developed. From the figure it is found that very few people save in any bank or post office and maximum do petty savings at their own. The bar diagram has shown that 80% of ST population fall under APL/BPL category. 7 % of general population fall under APL/ BPL category 11 % of SC population and 2 % of OBC fall under APL/BPL category respectively.

Fig. 3 Level of poverty Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Economic activity: It is found from figure 4 that, people of Baranti village are engaged in different economic activities like agriculture, fishing, hotel, mining and others. There are 35 % engaged in agriculture and 6%, 6%, 1% and 24% of people are engaged in fishing, hotel, mining and other economic activities respectively. Performing Santhal dance to earn money is an alternative occupation of Baranti village. Figure shows an alternative source of income by the villagers of Baranti. This figure depicts that, from October to April months santhal dance is performed by the villagers. This source of money helps in their economic life. However, majority of the people are engaged in agriculture. They are not being able to provide with a substantial economic base for themselves because their agriculture is practiced on a subsistence level; fallow land is limited in size; irrigation facility is poor, hence difficult to combat rainfall; economic level of life is poor.

Fig. 4 Economic activity MGNREGS Programme: Figure 5 depicts the surveyed households under MGNREGS programme conducted in Baranti village. From the survey it is found that 4 households have performed more than 30 days under MGNREGS programme, 5 households have performed 20 to 30 days and 5 households have performed less than 20 days under MGNREGS programs (Table no.1) respectively. Rest of the households has no job cards.

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Table no. 1 No. of Days engage under MGNREGS Programme

Having Job Card

Above 30 Days

20-30 Days

Fig. 5 MGNREGS Programme Development of Tourism in the Study Area: Selecting baranti â&#x20AC;&#x201C; eco-tourism area: factors: Reason for selecting Baranti as ecotourism area has been plotted in a bar diagram. 52% tourists have selected Baranti for spending their vacation, 13% for recreation, 5% for special event, 1% for friend visit , 17% for business, 2% for attending meeting, 4% for just passing time and 5% for other reasons.

Fig. 6 selecting baranti â&#x20AC;&#x201C; eco-tourism area: factors Halting duration of tourist: Halting duration of tourist at Baranti village has been plotted in a Bar diagram in figure no.7. The figure has shown that 52% of tourists have spent 3 nights at Baranti, 37% spend 2 nights, 4% spend 4 nights, 5% spend 1 night and 2% have spent 1 week respectively. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Fig. 7 Halting duration of tourist

Inflow of tourist at baranti: Inflow of tourists at Baranti has been shown on a yearly and a monthly trajectory. It is seen from the figure that 18.5% tourist have come in January, 15.9% in February, 3.2% in March, 1.1% April, 1.4% in May, 4.8 % June, 8.9% in July, 2.9% in August, 3.6% in September, 16.2% in October, 11.8% in November, & 11.7% December respectively. It is pointed out from the figure that most of the tourists have visited the place in winter.

Fig. 8 Inflow of tourist at baranti

Tourist service performance character Service performance character provided by tourist has been plotted by a Star diagram in figure no.9. Marks (full marks 5) have been awarded for each service. From the figure it has been found that 4.3 marks has been given for the quality of cleanliness by tourists, 3.3 marks for maintenance bathrooms, 2.9 for air-conditioned with proper ventilation, 0.5 marks for Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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laundry service., 4.2 marks for supply of food, 4.1 marks for evening refreshment, 3.7 marks for electricity, 3.2 marks for quality of water and 4.2 marks for communication respectively.

Fig. 9 Tourist service performance character

Proposal for Future Development of Employment with the Sustainability of the Nature: Development of guide for trekking in hills, i.e. for baranti and muradih. Making gulal (in bengali it termed as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;abirâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;) from palash flower through self- help group. Eco-park and boating facility for the tourist at baranti reservoir.

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Conclusion: The main focus of this study was to develop a comprehensive spatial database which will accentuate the socio-economic development of the area. From the study, it was found that this area is highly suitable for village tourism, small and medium scale industries like handicraft based forest product processing industries. Apart from the industries, this area has huge potential for future afforestation programmes from which sufficient revenue can be generated through controlled logging after a five to ten year gestation period. One of the major issues of this area is to introduction of pisi-culture. Basically, Baranti reservoir is under three mouza which hindered the development of such economic activity. If this situation overcomes by the villagers it will be a boom to the economic development of local area. Similarly, the vast barren lands, which remain unused throughout the year, can be effectively used for fodder cultivation as well as pastoral grounds for selective commercial animal rearing. For such afforestation and livestock rearing programmes, the physical ecology of the area seems to be perfectly suited. Therefore, these initiatives can be taken on an urgent basis in this area through a cooperative approach with little help from public administrative and financial agencies. Thus efforts and mechanisms for conducive implementation of these micro-level development strategies need to be evolved at the local level based on proper spatial databases through a synchronized initiative from both public and private stakeholders. References: 1. Abhijit Ghosh, Proshanta Kumar Ghosh and Debajit Datta (2011): Development of Spatial Database for Sustainable Micro-level Planning of Chandanpur. The Indian Journal of Spatial Science, Vol. II No. 2. pp. 1-10. 2. Agarwal P.K. (1996): Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s move towards sustainable development. MD Publications, New Delhi. 3. Aronoff S. (1993): Geographic Information System: a management perspective. WDL Publications, Ottawa, Canada. 4. Dutta U. and Singh Y. (2007): Micro-level planning using spatial database. Current Science, 93(7): 921-926. 5. Datta D, Ghosh P.K. and Ghosh A. (2010): Development of Spatial Database for sustainable micro-level planning of Matilaldih Mouza, Purulia, West Bengal. Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, 33(01): 301-308. 6. Ghosh D. (2007): Small dams, reservoirs and the people of Purulia: an ecosystem approach to irrigation management. Irrigation and Waterways Department, Government of West Bengal and Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Kolkata. 7. GOI (1981): Report on development of backward hill areas. Planning commission, Government of India, New Delhi. 8. Orning G.W. and Maki L. (1972): Land management information in northwest Minnesota: Minneapolis. Minnesota Land Management Information System Study, Report No. 1, Center for Urban Studies, University of Minnesota, USA. 9. Poudevigne I. and Alard D. (1997): Landscape and agricultural patterns in rural areas: a case study in the Brionne Basin, Normandy, France. Journal of Environmental Management, 50(4):335-349. 10. Schmidt-Kallert E. (2005): A short introduction to micro-regional planning. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Subregional Office for Central and Eastern Europe, Budapest.

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A Study of Attitude of Government and Private Secondary School Teachers towards the Use of Information and Communication Technology Dr. Inderpreet Kaur Associate Professor, Chandigarh College of Education, Landran, E-mail: inderpreetkaur.cgc@gmail.com ABSTRACT In the present study an effort has been made to study the Attitude of Secondary School Teachers of Different Academic Streams like languages, science/mathematics and social sciences of Government and Private schools towards the Use of Information and Communication Technology in Education. The sample consisted of 600 secondary school teachers of government and private schools from five districts of Punjab. Data were analyzed by using different techniques of statistics to draw conclusions.

Introduction Education is the most crucial investment in human resource development. The quality of manpower in any nation ultimately determines the sustainable well being of its people. Education has been a determining factor in achieving rapid development and technological progress and is the principle instrument for developing human capabilities for creation of social order based on values of freedom, social justice and equal opportunity. The quality of school education is one of the most important indicators for development, since high level of knowledge, competencies and skills are considered to be the very basic condition of active citizenship, employment, and social cohesion. 21st century is characterized with the emergence of knowledge based society wherein ICT plays a pivotal role. The National curriculum framework 2005 (NCF 2005) has also highlighted the importance of ICT in school education. With this backdrop, major paradigm shift is imperative in education characterised by imparting instructions, collaborative learning, and multidisciplinary problem-solving and promoting critical thinking skills. Government of India has announced 2010-2020 as the decade of innovation. Reasoning and Critical thinking skills are necessary for innovation. Foundation of these skills is laid at school level. It is desirable that affordable ICT tools and techniques should be integrated into classroom instructions right form primary stage so as to enable students develop their requisite skills. Most of the tools, techniques and tutorials are available in Open domain and accessible on web. Teachers thus play a crucial role in facilitating the adoption of technology in the classrooms. Attitude towards Information and Communication Technology for improving the Quality of Education With the advent of technology, literacy is increasingly becoming a fluid and evolving concept in society. It is seen as a continuum of knowledge, skills and strategies that individuals acquire over the course of their lives as a result of interactions with peers, information and communities around them (ICT Literacy Panel, 2002). Twenty-first century literacy, also called information and communications technology (ICT) literacy or new literacy, includes not only the traditional concept of literacy, being able to read and write fluently, but also

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includes the ability to judiciously utilize and incorporate the new technologies that abound in order to communicate with others (The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2006). As the rapid changes of information technology affect our lives on a daily basis, educators must continually change their pedagogical practices in order to prepare today’s learners for success in the 21st century. VanArk, Inklaar and McGuckin (2003) have reported that gains in workplace productivity are a direct result of the integration of the Internet and other information and communication technologies that allow workers to share information, communicate and solve problems. The importance of using ICT for improving education has been emphasized for over a decade in India right from 1992 the National Policy on Education emphasized using educational technology to improve the quality of education. In 2009, the government initiated a stakeholder dialogue on formulating a draft national policy for ICT in Education. This draft policy document proposes various delivery mechanisms to enable ICT literacy and provide ICT infrastructure to ensure ICT enabled teaching learning in India. Significance of the Study Globalization and technological change ,processes that have accelerated in tandem over the past fifteen years and have created a new global economy “powered by technology, fueled by information and driven by knowledge.”The emergence of this new global economy has serious implications for the nature and purpose of educational institutions. As the half-life of information continues to shrink and access to information continues to grow exponentially, schools cannot remain mere venues for the transmission of a prescribed set of information from teacher to student over a fixed period of time. Rather, schools must promote “learning to learn,”i.e., the acquisition of knowledge and skills that make possible continuous learning over the lifetime. The illiterate of the 21 st century,” according to futurist Alvin Toffler, “will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn.” So the use of ICT is the need of the hour in this world of Globalization. So, we can say that Teachers’ attitudes towards computers have been found to bear a direct effect on their classroom use of computers (Abas, 1995; Isleem, 2003; Almusalam, 2001; Blankenship, 1998). Objectives The study has been conducted on the basis of the following objectives: 1. To compare the attitude of secondary school teachers of Government and Private schools towards Information and Communication Technology. 2. To compare the attitude of secondary school teachers of various academic streams, viz. language, science/mathematics and social sciences towards Information and Communication Technology. Hypothesis 1. There is no significant difference between government and private secondary school teachers with respect to attitude towards Information and Communication Technology

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2. There is no significant difference between secondary school teachers belonging to different academic streams viz Language, Science and Mathematics and Social Sciences with respect to the attitude towards Information and Communication Technology. 3. There is no significant interaction between the school type and the academic streams of secondary school teachers with regard to the attitude towards Information and Communication Technology. Methodology The present study was conducted on 600 secondary school teachers, of government and private schools from five districts of Punjab. With equal number of teachers (300) were selected. Five districts were selected to collect the sample and the districts are northern Part: Hoshiarpur, southern part: Mansa, eastern part: Ropar, western part: Faridkot and south eastern part: Patiala. These districts were purposely selected so that the sample becomes representative of the population.60 secondary school teachers from each district belonging to language, science/mathematics and social sciences were taken as sample. To collect the data from 60 secondary school teachers the investigator visited 20 schools of each district and collected the data from 60 teachers teaching languages, science/mathematics and social sciences. Research tools: Attitude towards Information and Communication Technology scale was developed by the investigator. Analysis and Interpretation Table 1: F -value for the significance of difference between mean Private & Government School and streams for ICT (Information and Communication Technology) Source of variation Sum of Squares

Mean Square

F Value

P value

School

5.4

0.07

0.80

Stream

115.1

57.6

0.72

0.49

School * stream

4.1

2.0

0.03

0.98

Error

47831.1

594

80.5

Total

8003672.0

600

School: Government and Private, Stream: Language, Science/Math & Social science It is revealed from Table 1 that school showed non significant mean difference (F=0.07 & p>0.05) at 0.05 level of significance. It showed that the mean of ICT score of Government and Private schools was same.

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Table 2: The t-value for the significance of difference between the mean of ICT scores of Government and Private school Government (n=300) ICT

Mean 115.2

SD 8.8

Private (n=300) Mean 115.0

SD 9.1

t value 0.26

It was revealed that Mean and SD value of ICT scores of Government are 115.2 and 8.8 & 115.0 and 9.1 for Private school. The t value for mean difference was 0.26 which shows no significance between Government and Private school. It was evident from the table that Mean and SD value of ICT with scores of Government are 115.2 and 8.8 & 115.0 and 9.1 for Private school. The t value for mean difference was 0.26 which shows no significance between Government and Private school. Table 3: F -value for the significance of difference among streams for the ICT scores of Government & Private school

ICT

Stream

Mean

Std. Error

Language

208

115.7

10.2

0.7

Science/Math

210

114.6

8.5

0.6

Social science

182

115.1

7.9

0.6

Total

600

115.1

8.9

0.4

F Value p value

0.74

0.50

It is evident from Table 3 that the mean and SD values for ICT scores of languages teacher were 115.7 and 10.2, 114.6 & 8.5 for Science/Math teacher and 115.1 and 7.9 for Social Science teacher of Government and Private schools. F value among stream was observed 0.74 which found to be non significant at 0.05 level of significance. The result indicated that ICT scores were same in all streams of the both schools. Figure - 1: Interactional graph between school and stream for ICT score of senior secondary school teacher

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Findings of the study 1. There is no significant difference between Government and Private secondary school teachers with respect to information and communication technology The results indicate that attitude towards information and communication technology of teachers of both schools are same. 2. As clearly revealed from mean and SD value of attitude towards information and communication technology which is 115.2 and 8.8 for government secondary school teachers and 115.0 and 9.1 for private secondary school teachers. The t-value for mean difference was 0.26 which shows no significant difference between attitude of teachers towards information and communication technology in government and private schools. 3. There is no significant difference between the secondary school teachers of different academic streams i.e. languages, science/mathematics and social sciences with regard to their attitude towards information and communication technology. Both have almost same opinion for technology usage in the teaching learning process. 4. The study indicates that there is no significant interaction between the school type and the academic streams of secondary school teachers with regard to their attitude towards information and communication technology. Conclusion The introduction of information and communication technology in classrooms has offered new insights into the roles of teachers in promoting learning. It can stimulate teachers to think about the processes of learning, whether through a fresh study of their own subject or a fresh perspective on studentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s learning. It often dissolves the barrier between what students do and what teachers do. When teachers learn to use a new technology in their classrooms, they model the learning process for students; at the same time, they gain new insights on teaching by watching their students learn. Teachers should be encouraged to use information and communication technology more into their classroom situations for qualitative learning. References Abas, Z.W. (1995) Attitudes towards using Computers among Malaysian Teacher Education Students. In J. D. Tinsley, and T. J. van Weert (Eds.), World Conference on Computers in Education VI: WCCE_ 95 liberating the learner, 153â&#x20AC;&#x201C;162. London: Chapman & Hall. Nancy, E. M. (2011) Uses and Attitudes toward Educational Technology among New Teachers in Urban Schools: A Correlational Study. Ph.D. Thesis, University Of Phoenix. National Curriculum Framework. (2005). NCERT, New Delhi. Van Ark, B., Inklaar, R., and McGuckin, R.H. (2003) ICT Productivity in Europe and the United States Where do the Differences Come From? CESifo Economic Studies. 49, 295-318. www.indianexpress.com/news/govt-school-teachers-more--satisfied--private-ones--better-claims-pu-study,Retrieved 30/11/2011. www.unescobkk.org/en/education/ict/ICT-in-education-projects/policy/policy-projectsdescription/ on 09/06/09. Main Site [www.unescobkk.org/education/ict]. Yashpal National Curriculum framework Committee (1992) Ministry of Human Resource Development. New Delhi: NCERT. Youngman, M. And Harrison, C. (1998) Multimedia Portables For Teachers Pilot Project Report. Coventry: British Educational Communications and Technology Agency. Available at: http://www.crito.uci.edu/tic/findings.html Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Classification and Its Consequence Is Knowledge Jahar Biswas Ex-LIS Student, West Bengal, E-mail – jaharbiswas12@gmail.com ABSTRACT Classification is an important determinate of knowledge. Classification is a proper arrangements of documents or books. Book is the container of knowledge. Classification means book classification. Book classification means knowledge classification is a method if it is possible in proper ways, all the documents will be utilized in proper ways i.e. sufficiently. Every book will be used; every reader will get the book in a proper time. Time will save. Then there will be a growth of the Library. Library will provide maximum service to the reader. All types of books children rare books fiction, Literature etc binding journals, periodicals, phonorecords according their size and subject all documents have to have to be shelved. Classification of subjects divides a collection into Micro groups of the basis of likeness and unlikeness, so reader or learner can pick up his on her book easily. Subject will have to be out for classifying books and other Library documents. Classification requires a helpful order. The aims of classification are to proper arrange of books on the shelves. Alphabetical Arrangements in the arrangements for serious study and for retrieval but where necessary by author or by title is also used for classification.

Introduction “Classification is a theory of the structure of knowledge and the principles of classification must, therefore, be based on an adequate understanding of the nature of knowledge, classification is not some part of ‘an external reality’ wanting to be discovered; it is an intellectual upon mental entities or concepts”. There are many things in this vast universe. Some-ones are known and some-ones are unknown. Each and every thing has some own identities. The ideas of a thing are known as knowledge. Especially familiarity of things is knowledge. Man has won this universe. Man is commanding every sphere of the universe. Every particles of nature is essential to lead a good life. In Ancient Periods In an ancient period there was no perfect classification of things, ideas, But though they also lead a life which was not systematic. During the period life was very hard and endurance. The aim of life in that period was to live. In lack of classification the life was full of dangers, uncertainty, nasty, poor and solitary. To overcome from this situation man struggles centuries by centuries. They comprehend the words sense, relationship, groups. In that very primitive era now and then they defeated. Their aims were not fulfill. Man being a social human being was the top intellectuals. Man has mind and wisdom but other animals also but these were as in the inferior sense. So man is called social animal, superior, civilized and also command of idea has captured the dominant position on this earth for a long struggle among the primitive animals. Man can think, express conserve and preserve with the help of intellectually wisdom and mind. Man can speak, write and also picture. Man continuously tries to know things its merits and demerits. They thought and want to know more about it. Life is full of activities as economical and non-economical. They engaged with the activity which was more favourable to lead a good life. Man works and Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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takes rest. They comprehend every work is repetitive. Life is also repetitive i.e. circulates on by one these works have to do within a short period. But have to mind that have to progress and develop the pattern of work within a certain period maintaining the sustainable development. They thought the spiral of development of new things or subject which were out of their boundary, gradually it is seen the division of works society is divided into several groups, to earn their lively hood i.e., hunting, fishing, cattle and gradually comes agriculture, mining, farming, Industry and goods and services. Things i.e., subjects are grown continuously with the increase in opportunities. In the field of education both academic and non academic subjects are increasing continuously. There are many subjects. It has different dimensions, witnessing and exponential rate among the classes of knowledge. Subject has arrays of classes, collateral arrays, and chain of classes. Economics Macro Economics Growth and Development (Econ) International Trade (Econ) Economical History (Econ) Population (Econ) Indian History (Econ) European History (Econ) Micro Economics (Econ) Statistical Economics (Econ) Mathematical Economics Econometrics Public Finance (Econ) Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Circles the universe of knowledge repetitive circulation of works subject matter is increasing as micro subject. Economics is a vast sense in the arena of economics. It has many parts primarily in the secondary levels economics contains hundred marks. It has several chapters gradually when it university levels probably every chapter will be considered as one paper contains 100 marks. It has main two trends classical thinkers and Keynes thinker. It has macro based analysis and other hand micro based analysis. Economics deals with history in the Indian contexts Indian history of economics. There are several thinkers of population several thinker of population based on economics and on the other thinkers of agriculture, econometrics etc. Economics deals with trade, International trade. Economics contains accounting, National income accounting. It has liberal sides and also closed sides in the sense of import and export. It is familiar as social science and also semi-science. Economics acts with the help of higher mathematics as statistics and matrix and victors. So it indeed classification is essential to gain special knowledge. Economics relates with nature man, society and self humanities. In this field man and nature are related, Man and self humanities are another factors to do any work. Besides, man and society are also essential to perform an action or to gain any knowledge. Above all classification of knowledge began the day when the early man started to tell the name of a thing. There are infinite entities in the Universe which are still up-to unknown to us. Manâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s motto is to know the unknown to see the unseen and to win the unbeaten. Consequently those which are unknown will become known in near future. Consequently, a model of classification has to take us. It should have infinite hospitality to provide freshly known entities in array and chains. Specially books, periodicals maps, sound, recording etc. are the main factors of knowledge these are have to classify to study, preserve, conserve and to develop and civilize man and society is essential. To classify any information, documents, theory it is essential to maintain chronological systematic arrangements. Classification means things i.e., subject or bookish classification with arrival of knowledge classification must come. So there is a proverb if there is no knowledge, there is no classification without document classification is not possible. When knowledge form and take shape of a information as documents i.e., book from then it creates certain additional characteristics in the universe of knowledge from all the involvements of idea the whole embodiments produced in a shape of book. Now the word classification is essential to fulfill the laws of library science. Classification is use comparatively in the broad field. It is not a practical approach. Its order of nature is rested. Document can be preserved. Document is a record of work on paper or other materials. Document should be fit for physical handling. Knowledge i.e., book or documents can be handwritten printed, typed means of communications (sound recording, photo graphic production). Classification should be historical which is oriented to every human society. Documents will be base on likeness. It should have a physical body of the documents. Sense, relationship, practice based on they, Ancient phase i.e., Vedic classification is based on Dharma (Religion), Artha (Economy) Karma (Work) Moksha (Salvation), Greek civilization is known as utility based classification. It has some factors i.e.,

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(i) Theoretical Philosophy (ii) Practical Philosophy (iii)Fine Art Theoretical Philosophy is one of elements of Greek civilization. Greek civilization deals with logic, Metaphysics, Mathematics and Physics, practical philosophy is another component of philosophical theory. It is classified into three subjects Ethics, political science and economics. Fine Art is the important factor by which it comes to know as productive art. Both applied science and useful art is used to advance and develop the Greek civilization through the classification. Baconian Classification Francis Bacon evolved the classification in 1561 – 1626. So it is known as Baconian classification has three classes vi 2 – Class – 1 – Class – 2 Class – 3 Class – I Historical aspect which is related with history and Geography. Class – II – Poetry i.e., Arts and literature is the second class of the Baconian classification id based on nature and spiritual power. Class – III – Philosophy is the factor of reason. (a) Science of God (b) Science of Nature Comte’s Classification: Great Philosopher August Comte introduced the classification and it is known as the classification.

Natural Science Man & Nature Humanities Man & Self

Social Science Man & Society

Utility of Classification: We have 5 senses organs wants to act simultaneously, only our head cannot control merely. But according to classification method if we operate, all the difficulties will disappear. Classification makes our thinking active and fresh. The utility of classification is like as maps. In our society, there are various types of classes we can recognize them with the help of classification. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Classification in Our Daily Life There are various types of classification in our daily life. If we go the market, we can see meats shop stall of fish, stall of raw vegetables. We can see classification method is also followed there. Each stall is for similar goods. Nature and Artificial Classification Classification is process of separation and assembling. Classification depends on important points of similarity and classification according to some unimportant or less, important or less, important points of semblance. It is grouping of method according to natures plan and order grouping of things according to the purpose of individual concerned. Idea Vs Word Idea and word are not same thing. It is different from each t another. All the ideas are expressed through the word but idea and word are not same, Horse has different work like Ghora, Ashawa, Seval and fart but same meaning. Meaning of word and definition meaning of word and definition are closely related in the field. Classification psychologist deals with mind. Therefore psychologist requires the activities of classification and philosopher determine scope and nature of all these activities and all the words meaning. Rules of Classification Classification is based on in the light of logic. When any problem originates in life, It is solved with mind. The name of the mental process is thinking to solve the problem. Logic commands to recognize the thinking in a definite method. Logic Base Dchain Division Classification and division of thinking followed the same thinking method. Division divides race and its sub race. Division contains classes and further sub classes. Classification make grouping in classes. Classification is inductive and division is deductive. References CK Sharma, Amit K Sharma Library Classification.

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A Study to Find out the Effects of Swamiji’s Music in Depression Level of Students Jayanta Acharya Ph. D. Research Scholar, Department of Education Seacom Skills University, Birbhum E-mail:jayantaacharya16@yahoo.in ABSTRACT Every civilized society has an effect of music which may have different forms. This music is a part of a healthy life. Many learned men as well as parents also believe that music really plays a very important role for the grooming of a person. The music helps for mental development of a child. Music also helps for the development of memory and ability of a child. Music is not only helpful for children but also equally helpful or entertaining every age group. Some very popular songs leave an impact on one mind for a long time. Even it reduces the stress and depression that we listen regularly. Each and every one of us may not have the same taste of music. Especially the teenagers prefer a different type than the other age group. They specially prefer song of faster beat like rock music or heavy instrumental songs. Most of time we can find these teenagers do not understand the words of the song, but under the influence of groups they sometimes develop an inclination to such music. By listening to such music they develop a different type of feelings. Specially this faster beat songs or film songs or modern band songs has a hidden indication of sexuality. Not even that, the language of this songs are equally sexuality .The exposure of the actor and actress are very indecent. This creates a deep impact in their mind and they show their interest in such things. They develop a very wrong notion for the opposite sex. Especially the boys of this age taken girls as commodities whom they regard as cheap and most of them also gets addicted to drugs, alcohol, smoking and many such intoxicating things. These songs develop a very wrong impression in the mind of these teenagers. Presently the sexual harassment of women and other antisocial activities somehow has a link with these modern songs. Even the psychologist also proved that music influence human life to a great extent.

Key Words: Music, Depression Introduction Swami Vivekananda during those days took up music as an instrument to motivate or inspire and to reduce anxiety of the young generation. Swamiji took recourse to this song to awaken the awareness of the young people in dependent India. He said the nation became womanly, hearing the womanly music since childhood. even the poets cannot draw such a nation in imagination 'Domru Singa' will have to be played, people have to speak the words like 'Mohabir, Mohabir, Haro, Haro,Bom ,Bom' to awaken the nation .the music that softens the feelings of men, should be stopped for some days. People should get addicted to 'DHRUPOD MUSIC' instead of ‘KHEYAL’ and 'TOPPA' .The nation should be invigorated through the rhythm of Vedic hymn. Magnanimity should be brought in every aspect. If we follow such ideas, then the people and nation will prosper. It has been proved scientifically that from childhood if one learns music then not only his memory but also his conscience as well as all hidden talents develops. More or less any of these qualities a child can have which is proved by the scientists. At an early age Swamiji started learning music. so, perhaps our motherland got such a multitalented personality, a godlike figure - swami Vivekananda .The scientists has proved that the practice of music develops certain important neuron circuits and synaptic connections which helps to develop conscience, memory and decision making process in human beings. So to be a musician, only Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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practicing or rehearsing music regularly will not do, infect to be intelligent, honest and a wonderful human being we need to learn music. Adolescence and Rock Music Rock music (Tervo, 1985, 1991) is often a common target of interest for adolescents. Music only becomes rock music when it is mixed with the fantasies which the adolescent invests in it. This must take into account the sounds, rhythms, melodies, instruments, voice, lyrics and the combined effect of countless variations of tone. Music can affect adolescents emotionally at a level deeper than is possible with words alone. Rock music enables adolescents to express, to be in contact with and to share among themselves feelings of anger, love, rage, grief, longing, psychological disintegration, etc., as well as to experience closeness and isolation. It can safely lull the adolescent into regressive attitude and – with its musical clarity, simplicity and high volume – give shelter to the distressed and confused adolescent. Rock music may introduce possibilities for the exploration of sexual fantasies and feelings. The beat and firm pulse associated with rock music is at once both safe and exciting. One might describe the musical experience as a state of mind in which fantasy and one’s own body join together. Although the style and lyrics may change, adolescents use rock music to connect with a wide range of emotions including love, longing, anger, sadness, grief, psychological disintegration, shame and sexuality. In the life of human beings the role of music and words are unlimited. But not all the words are plea to hear. The people of Vedic age discovered what kind of words are pleasant to hear and enjoyable. By imitating the songs of birds they first discovered the musical notes. The main source of the seven notes of music has developed by hearing by hearing for instance, from the call of peacock we get 'SA', 'RA' form the cry of oxen,’GA’ from the cry of a kid, ‘MA’ form a certain type of bird called as Chakra bag,’ PA’ from the call of nightingale, ‘DHA’ from the call of a donkey or horse, NEE from the call of an elephant. According to swami Vivekananda India has given the world seven musical notation 'SA RE GA MA PA DHA NEE' and tone of three’ gram’(by which we can make musical notation)In 1898, Swamiji was in Calcutta, India, taking part in the consecration of Ramakrishana Math monastery set up in the house of Nilambar Babu, a disciple of Ramakrishna. Vivekananda wrote the poem during his stay there. This arati is sung in all Ramakrishna maths and Ramakrishna missions in their daily prayers. Researchers have done research on this song of Swamiji’s song. The song that changes thinking of both young and old. Music provides opportunities to us: a) Make positive changes in attitude, mood and emotional states. b) It helps student gain a sense of empathy for others. c) It helps to development the of speech and reading skills d) It trains student to focus their attention for sustained periods. e) Resolve conflicts leading to stronger family and peer relationships.

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f) Improved the awareness of self and environment. g) Develop adjust and relaxation skills. h) Support positive feelings and thoughts. Objectives: 1) To know the difference between students & aged persons in respect of changing behaviour. 2) To know whether any relation exists between depression and the scores of changing behaviour. . Null Hypotheses: H1. There exists no difference between boys & girls in respect of changing behaviour. H2. There exists no co-relation between depression and the scores of changing behaviour. Methodology Sampling: In case of selection of sample one technique of sampling was used, known as Purposive Sampling-to select District, Blocks and co-operating institution. After selecting Howrah District, Belur girls & Belur boys schools at Jagacha Block was selected. School classes XI & XII were selected purposively. Considering the time limit and other facilities 300 boys & 300 girls were selected. Total 300* 2=600 sample. Variables of the Study: The following variables were considered in the study: 1. Changing behaviour & 2. Depression. Changing behaviour is independent variables and Depression is the dependent variable. Tools: Tool-Questionnaire (close ended). & Beak Depression Inventory Questionnaire refers to device for securing answers to a series of questions by using a form, which the respondent fills in himself. Goods, Hatt(1952) Sri Ramakrishna Arati (Khanda Bhava Bandhana) Khandana-bhava-bandhana, jaga-vandana, vandi tomay, Niranjana nara-rupa-dhara (repeat) nirguna gunamay, Mochana-agha-dushana, jaga-bhushana, chid-ghana kay, Jnan-anjana vimala-nayana (repeat) vikshane moha-jai. Bhasvara bhava sagara, chira-unmada, prema-pathar, Bhaktarjana yugala-charana (repeat) tarana bhava-par. Jrimbhita yuga ishvara, jagad-ishvara, yoga-sahay, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Niro-dhana samahita-mana, (repeat) nirakhi tava-kripay. Bhan-jana dukha-ganjana, karuna-ghana. karma-kathor, Pranarpana jagata-tarana, (repeat) krintana-kali-dor. Vanchana-kama-kanchana, ati-nindita, indriya-rag, Tyagishvara he nara-vara, (repeat) deho pade anurag. Nirbhaya gata-samshaya, dridha-nishchaya, manasa-van, Nishkarana-bhakata-sharana, (repeat) tyaji-jati-kula-man. ( Sampada tava shripada, bhava-goshpada vari-yathay, Premarpana sama-darashana, (repeat) jaga-jana-dukha-jay.)2 [(Namo namo prabhu vakya manatita)2 mano vachanai-kadhar; Prabhu mano vachanai-kadhar, (Jyotira-jyoti ujvala hridi kandara)2 tumi tamo-bhanjana-har; Prabhu tumi tamo-bhanjana-har.]2 (Dhe dhe dhe langa ranga bhanga baje anga sanga mridanga)2 (Gayiche chanda bhakata-brinda arati tomar )2 Jaya jaya arati tomar, hara-hara arati tomar, Shiva-shiva arati tomar. Khandana-bhava-bandhana, jaga-vandana vandi tomay. Jai Sri Guru Maharaj ji ki jai! Data Analysis Researcher for 3 months continued this counselling of on about 600 people. Among them 300 are boys and rest are girls. The age group of the students are nearly from 16 to 18 .the most of the students, reading higher secondary school are adolescent. The crucial period of student life is adolescent period. In this time so much physical and mental changes occur in student life and sometimes they become puzzled. Educationists call the period, the stage of storm and stresses or strain and strife. These students are generally the holder of higher secondary. They are generally the regular listeners of this song. For a better result the scientist has prepared a questionnaire and gave it to the listener of this song to provide a better counselling to them. And they were asked to tick the correct answer of the following questions which they did properly. It has been noticed that 60% of students, are also listening to such a song. It has been noticed again that 81% of boys and 92% of girls regularly listen to such music. But 37% of boys and 48% of girls who listen to the song understand the meaning of the song. Whereas others may or may not understand the meaning of the song. At least, 35% of boys and 48% of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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girls responded that they cannot spend a day without listening to such a pleasant music. Even 71% of the boys and 87% of the girls are of the view that this song calms their mind and body. As tiredness go away depression & anxiety starts. Depression is a generalised emotional state. Depression is an emotional disturbance that may encompass many different feelings and symptoms. It is defined as a vague, unpleasant and sometimes debilitating emotion that is experienced in anticipation of misfortune. In social performance situations the sufferer fears exposure to scrutiny humiliation or embarrassment and anticipates the failure to perform up to standard. In the performance situation one is intensely anxious may have a panic attack and sometimes avoid, the feared situation or endure it with intense distress. The combination of avoidance, anticipation or anxiety in the situation prevents one form functioning normally in the occupational area. If the pattern of depression becomes long lasting or pervasive enough, it can generalize to other situations and with time its sufferer may develop avoidant personality disorder. Other than this if one realizes and understands the meaning of the song then it gives relief and calms the mind. 73% of boys told that listening the song regularly draws away the tension and depression of daily life. 89% of girls are of the view that this song removes their depression. They also experienced that this song gives relief from their family life. The song has hidden meaning which convey us our duty to our society and mankind. It even gives us the message how we can gain the blessings of the Almighty. We can also understand the significance of our life. In this song the famous saying of Swamiji,â&#x20AC;&#x2122; who loves man serves godâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; is reflected. We have to drive the entire world to perfection. We should help everybody considering them as our dear ones.76% of boys and 86% of girls are of the view that this song enhances their social awareness. These listeners have done a lot of social work such as helping the needy, and helping the students who are academically good.82% of boys and 96% of girls reported that this song increases their will power. 68% of boys and 94% of girls have admitted that this song is instrumental in changing their behaviour. They have developed a good relationship with the people around them. They exchange good wishes. At present, the relevance of this song is much. Because with the change of age, we have changed our leading of life. Today, the ideal of simple living and high thinking into high living and no thinking. At present, people are only competing to curb each other. Patience, love, affection are lost. Earlier people had a good relationship not only with their family but also with the people around them. The elderly people of the family had the right to love and rule. Now a days, we do not see joint family. Children are brought up in a nuclear family where both fathers and mothers are in the service. Naturally, they are not able spend much more time with their children. Even in this situation, this song has a great significance. Students have informed that this song gives them peace and happiness. They become more patient. They feel a strong relation among their friends and relatives. Aged persons also have admitted that this song gives them peace of mind. The race of this song remains for a long time. This song gives people inspiration after home from their work. They feel the urge to stand by the people who are in trouble. 82% boys and 98% girls have admitted that this song has developed their spirituality and power of realization. Several educationists and psychologists think that one of the main objectives of education is to create spiritual awareness. That is why Swamaji has admitted the importance of meditation for womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s education. It will increase mental power. He believed that one could achieve unlimited power of memory through meditation. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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In this age of science and globalization, many people do not follow this ideal though Radhakrishnan, Rabindranath tagore, Rishi Arobind, Swami Vivekananda etc. have admitted its spiritual importance. Indian Education Commission has given the importance to spiritual development and to standard living. Several idealists, philosophers and educationists think that one’s spiritual awareness can be awakened if he/she takes his/her morality to a new and advanced level. They think that the aim of education is to awaken spiritual awareness. Spiritual education helps people to transform their hatred into love, violence into nonviolence. In short, spiritual education gives a way live happily and peacefully. 82% boys and 96% girls have admitted that this song develops their will power. They are able to concentrate more on other works. Will power is such a positive and creative power that helps us to determine and to avoid the undesirable activities. It is that special ability of mind which helps us to get know about what is right and what is wrong. 97% boys and 99% girls have admitted that this song teaches us how to become a perfect man. It changes our view of life. This song leads us to lead a selfless life. It inspires men to be lovers only for the sake of love. This song helps people to advance in life. It helps us to learn what is the main object of our life. In this age of globalization , when people are tired of running after money, this song helps them to have faith in God and to believe people around them. This song has every element that teaches us to have control over our desire for all earthly materials. It also teaches us to develop our qualities for being a perfect man. 83% boys and 97% girls have admitted that this song develops their patience and tolerance. Gradually, this song which has a length of 20 minutes is difficult to hear and sing. But they used to it gradually. In course of time this patience has also influence in other things of life and they succeed in all spheres of life. Patience is the most necessary thing in a student’s life. If one learns anything with patience, it remains with him for a long time. It improves the students’ learning ability. Patience is confined not only in life of a student but also in other spheres of life like working life , family life and even in bringing up children. Otherwise, if we develop our power of tolerance, we will be able to cope with the circumstances. Incidents like, killing violence, quarrelling will decrease. Shree shree Sarada ma Said , “ one must be patient like the earth . What inequities are being perpetuated on her! yet she quietly endures them all”. After listening to this song in the evening, 67% of students have admitted that this song improves their attention to studies. To enhance their attention to studies, this song has a great role. 24% of students have admitted that this song improves their attention and interest at times. 9% of students have admitted that this song has motivated them. Actually, they admit that they cannot understand the meaning of all words of this song. 88% of students have admitted that this song increases their interest and attention to studies. And 12% of students have admitted that this song gives them the interest in literature.

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Analysis of Data and Major Findings: Showing t Value Changing behaviour

ĎŹ

SED

boys

300

45.67

7.69

0.769

girls

300

50.72

8.13

0.813

Level of Significance

598

1.96

No Significance

There is no difference between students and aged people in score of changing behaviour. So calculate value is less than table value that is why null hypotheses is not rejected. Showing Co-relation N

ĎŹ

SED

Changing behaviour

300

46.74

8.135

0.332

Depression

300

4.253

3.315

0.135

Level of Significance

398

--0.456319

Negative corelation

There is Negative co-relation between score of Changing behaviour and depression. Limitations of the Study: Although the investigator tried to proceed this study to the best of his efforts sincerely but there are certain limitations as the study was conducted within restricted scope and facilities. The Limitations are: 1) In the study 600 students (boys & girls) were taken as sample from both group. For more valid results the number of sample should be increased but it was not possible due to paucity of time. 2) The changing behaviour of different subjects could be assessed to get more specific results; it was not possible due to time constraint. Finding and Conclusion 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The song makes calms their mind and body. The song draws away the tension and depression & anxiety. The song enhances their social awareness. They have a good relationship with the people around them. They have developed their spirituality and power of realization and also developed will power. 6. The song leads them to lead a selfless life and also develop their patience and tolerance. 7. The song improves their attention to study and daily work.

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References Burns, J. L., Labbé, E. Arke, B., Capeless, K., Cooksey, B., Steadman, A., & Gonzales, C. (2002). The effects of different types of music on perceived and physiological measures of stress. Journal of Music Therapy, 39(2), 101-116. Cevasco, A. M., Kennedy, R., & Generally, N. R. (2005). Comparison of Movement-to-Music, Rhythm Activities, and Competitive Games on Depression, Stress, Anxiety, and Anger of Females in Substance Abuse Rehabilitation. Journal of Music Therapy, 42(1), 64-80. Hammer, S. E (1996). The effects of guided imagery through music on state and trait anxiety. Journal of Music Therapy, 33(1), 47-70. Hernández-Ruiz, E. (2005). Effect of Music Therapy on the Anxiety Levels and Sleep Patterns of Abused Women in Shelters. Journal of Music Therapy, 42(2), 140-158. Hsu, W., & Lai, H. (2004). Effects of Music on Major Depression in Psychiatric Inpatients. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 18(5), 193-199. Jones, N., & Field, T. (1999). Massage and music therapies attenuate frontal EEG asymmetry in depressed adolescents. Adolescence, 34(135), 529-534. Kerr, T., Walsh, J., & Marshall, A. (2001). Emotional change processes in music-assisted reframing. Journal of Music Therapy, 38(3), 193-211 Gopal .R Cognitive Behavioral Strategic Approach in Overcoming Depression & Anxiety APH Publishing Corporation ISBN978-81-313-0798-4(Page-190) Karhne , H,W and laux R.M(1992) Achievement Stress and Test anxiety,Washington; Hemiphere Khandana Bhava–Bandhana Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Muslim Women and Electoral Politics in India: A Case Study Prasenjit Saha Assistant Professor, Départment of Political Science, Panchmura Mahavidyalaya, Panchmura, District - Bankura, West Bengal, E-mail : prasenjit.pnm@gmail.com Introduction The health of democracy always depends on the active participation of the citizen in politics. A successful democracy should be inclusive in character at the same time. Though India claims to be a largest democracy in the world, there remains certain conspicuous limitation in its inclusive nature. In spite of being a constitutionally secular country the participation of Muslim women in politics is not much inclusive since independence. Muslim account for about 15% of India’s total 1.2 billion people, which mean that although a minority the number some 175 million , making them the world’s third largest population. But Muslim has been under representative since Independence. According to some electoral surveys in India there are 46 of 543Lok Sabha constituencies, which have more than 30 percent Muslim and its suggest that the community can make a decisive impact on the outcomes of about 110 seats. But in reality regarding the share of seats in Lok Shaba it never goes to above 10 percent. Their participation remains very low compare to other community. Particularly the women have shown apathy to the electoral politics. This paper will try to find out the actual scenario of Muslim women’s participation in India’s electoral politics. Here by the word ‘participation’, I try to mean participation in terms of voting, participation in election related activity of extra electoral participation in protest and demonstration, and finally participation as an electoral candidate that mean holding a position as a legislature. The causes of their apathy and problem related to political socialization will also be addressed. Representation on National level as well as local level body will be analysed. Finally I will try to suggest some measure which can help to break this colonial hang over and change their mind towards politics. Present status of women in Indian Representative Democracy (All India Basis): Data from the Election Commission of India on the general election to the 16th Lok Sabha in 2014 and the Assembly elections present a dismal picture. Out of the 543 members of the 16th Lok Sabha, only 66 are women—a paltry 12.16 per cent, considering the fact that women make up half of the country's population. Also distressing is the fact that only 668 women contested for the 543 seats, of whom 206 contested as independent candidates (all of whom lost). The statistics are telling. Major and minor political parties are still very parsimonious in nominating women as their candidates in parliamentary elections. Shockingly, there were no women members of Parliament (MPs) from two major States, Haryana and Jharkhand, smaller States such as Goa and Himachal Pradesh, and several north-eastern States, apart from a few Union Territories. West Bengal topped the list in terms of percentage of women among MPs, having sent 13 women to the Lok Sabha, 30 per cent of the total number of MPs from the State. Other States that ranked relatively high included Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh, with women accounting for at least 15 per cent of each of the State's MPs. West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh also had the highest number of women MPs.

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The situation is dire in the State Assemblies too. Out of a total of 4,120 elected members of legislative assemblies (MLAs) across 28 States, the National Capital Territory of Delhi and the Puducherry Union Territory (which constitute the electoral college that elects the President), only 359 are women, accounting for a mere 8.71 per cent. Only nine States had the percentage of women MLAs in double digits. Surprisingly, Haryana had the highest percentage of women MLAs, closely followed by Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh, States that have traditionally scored low on various development indices, especially those relating to women's development. The Uttar Pradesh Assembly had the highest number of women MLAs, at 35, closely followed by West Bengal and Bihar with 34 each. A look at the ratio of male to female contestants in State Assembly elections shows how the odds are stacked against women even at the candidate level. Most States had at least 10 male candidates for every female candidate, with the ratio rising above 15 in several key States. Statement of the Problem: Before to analyse the present scenario of Muslim representation let us see the root of the history behind this fact. The concern about the under-representation of Muslim in Indian politics is not a new issue. In 1906, delegates of Muslim visited Viceroy Lord Minto and asked him for political safeguard of Muslims. They suggested the communal representation in legislative council across the country. To protect the communal sentiment Lord Minto created an space for communal representation of Muslim in the Indian Council Act 1909.As a result, political representation of Muslim and other group became a part of the Government of India Acts of 1909, 1919, 1935. But after seeing the communal violence in time of Independence, the makers of constitution seriously abolished the reservation system of religion community.1 Now let us see the percentage of Muslim M.P in Lok Shaba (19512009). Table-1 60

10%

8% 40

7% 30

5% 4%

1957

1962

42 25

34 10

11 0 1952

1967

1971

1977

1980

1984

1989

1991

1996

1998

1999

2004

2009

This graph is sufficient to establish the fact that how much low their representation in Indiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s democratic chamber. Now when we consider the women participation the matter is very sensitive and really unfortunate. In 2009, 9% of parliamentarians were women and among them Muslim women were very few. In the First general (1952) election there was no Muslim Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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women candidate. In Second general election (1957) there were two female Muslim parliamentarians from the congress party and only one in the third Lok Sabha (1962). Their level of parliamentary representation remain nil in the fourth, fifth, tenth and twelfth Lok Sabha which did not hold representation form Muslim women. However, two Muslim women were elected to the sixth Lok Sabha (1977), apart from three more in the by-election held in 1978 and 1981.3 Now the following chart will able to give us a clear picture of Muslim women electoral performance from 1980-2004: Table 2

Nominated By Year of Election

National parties

State/regional parties

Total

Independents

Won

Lost

Won

Lost

Won

1980

1984

1989

1991

1996

1998

1999

2004

Total

134

(Source : Statistical Reports of the Election Commission, Government of India)

Lost Won

Lost

Table 3

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The trend of apathy has been changed from 7th (1980) general election. Before to this election there were no independent candidates. Although it was not happened drastically, but there were some indications of breaking the continuity. Muslim women had contested the general election independently (table-2). This trend continued thereafter. But to win the election was very difficult task for those women. All six women who contested as independent or as nominees of registered regional political parties had loosed their security deposits. At the 1989 election to the 9th Lok Sabha, only Subhashini Ali (CPM) was elected from Uttar Pradesh. As the 9th Lok Sabha could not run its full term, mid-term elections were held for the Tenth Lok Sabha in 1991. This year also the Muslim women did not lose their interest. As many as 15 Muslim women contested the elections in 1991, all were failed to win the seats. One thing I have to mention here those few Muslim women who were elected in the elections they had a strong family political background. In 1996 for the 11th Lok Shaba near about 37 Muslim women contested the elections, among them 30 were independent. This time also result remained the same. In the 13th and 14th Lok Shaba total 3 Muslim women candidate were elected. In all the elections most of the Muslim women candidates lost so miserably as to forfeit their deposits.6 Point to be noted that the low success rate of these candidates could mean that political parties fielded Muslims in constituencies where they were not expecting to win the election, or that there was a bias against Muslim candidates among the voters.7 On the other hand if we give a close look to the political and personal background of Muslim women elected to Lok Shaba we could find that most of them belonged to either royal families or political dynasties. After the enactment of 73rd and 74th Amendment Act, the Muslim women had got the opportunity to contest as a candidate or involve as party workers in their won village. The Panchayaty Raj system has created a space for the women in general, particularly those who are actually the first generation in politics. Reservation of women in local body really changes the dimension of participation of women. In Kerala and West Bengal a number of Muslim women are elected in local body. But it is not satisfactory in respect of their population. This problem of under representation is our sole question. When decentralize governance create a new opportunity for establishing a successful participatory democracy in india and also give a wide space to promote the development of every community of India, why they are lagging behind from their other counterpart? What is the actual reality of their participation in rural governance? What are the causes of their under representation? What are they thinking about politics in India? Our department has taken the opportunity to answer these questions by done a case study on Muslim majority area of West Bengal. Objective of the study: The main objectives of my study are as follows: 1) To find out the existing reality of Muslim women. 2) To find out the status of participation of local people in governance. 3) To highlight the appropriateness and effectiveness of existing organization structure for removing or solving the problem regarding their participation. 4) To find out their awareness on the representative process of democracy. 5) To present a conclusion out of the analysis, this can be helpful to give a new dimension for ensuring the sustainable and inclusive democracy, by overcoming the existing shortfalls. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Universe of the Study: Considering the topic of explanation it is necessary to select the universe for answering the research question. The sample selection process begins with determining appropriate subject for the study (see methodology section). Researcher has selected two Gram Samsad, which are Chak Jambeia and Lalbandh, under the Panchmura Gram panchayate of Taldangra Panchayate Samity of Bankura District for investigation. These two are regarded as most Muslim populated area (near about 62% muslim) under this Block. According to our view these two Gram Samsad are appropriate for testing research questions because they can be easily accessible. For having very nearer to our academic institution this locality is much familiar to me which is very help to survey. Methodology: This study is basically empirical in nature. As I mention before the universe of the investigation, here it must be relevant to discuss the sampling method of the data collection. In this case study none of random and purposive sampling can be applicable exclusively. For making investigation more convenient here researcher followed the mixed sampling method to select the sample. The data have come from both primary and secondary sources. The data collection not only confined in villagers, to justify the information, to gather relevant data about plans and programmes, interaction have been conducted with bureaucrats, the leading panchayate office bearers. In this study, the primary data will be collected from the Village Muslim women, who are the sole respondents. 25 respondents from each Gram Samsad (25Ă&#x2014;2=50) have been selected by using the method of interval sampling or systematic sampling. The method to collect the data from the respondents is questionnaire method, based on interview. Interview allows the researcher to delve deeply in to the subject. It can encourage the respondents to provide the reason for their opinions. Both open and closed ended questionnaire will be given to the respondents. Point to be noted that, different types of questionnaire have been prepared for addressing the different types of respondents. The secondary data source of our investigation are the Government reports, statistics, orders, published and authorize official data, journal, books, newspaper and various reliable and relevant documents. In course of survey we have gone through meticulously through the above mention resources for gathering the supplementary information and cross checking. Locale of the study: Bankura is fourth largest district situated on the western periphery of the state of West Bengal and included in the Bhardhaman Division. It formed the western boundary of the state bordering Bihar (Now Jharkhand) till 1956 when Purulia was included in West Bengal and formed the western most boundary of the state. There are 3 sub-divisions (Bankura, Khatra and Bishnupur) and 22 community development blocks in the district. The district has 22 Panchayat Samities with 190 Gram Panchayats and 1896 Gram samsad consisting of 3830 villages. It has an area of 6882.00 Sq. Km and it has population of 3596292(Male-1840504, Female- 1755788).The density of population is 523 per Sq.km and literacy is 60.44. The district has 3830 Mouzas and 559295 rural households. Panchmra. (G.P): The Panchmura Gram Panchayat under Bankura district the locale of the study. The Panchmura gram panchayat is located southern part of Bankura district. It belongs to the Taldangra development block under Khatra subdivison. Panchmura Gram Panchayat shares its border with Nakaijuri Gram Panchayat of Onda Block in the north, Mandal gram Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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panchayat of Simlapal Block in the South, saltora gram panchayatin the east and Fulmati gram panchayat in the West Total area of the G.P is about 386552 Hactare. Characteristics of Population 2011 Total population of G.P

17839

Total Female population

8699

total male population

9140

Total number of household

4620

Total number of SC household

1690

Total number of ST household

380

Total number of Minority household

312

Total number of BPL household

1758

Male literacy Rate (%)

Female literacy Rate (%)

Number of Backward village

There are 19 Mouza and 50 Gram under Panchmura Gram Panchayat. It has 13 Gram Samsads and elected members to the G.P are 13. It is very clean from the table socioeconomic status of the people is not much good at all. A large number of households (1758) are belongs to BPL. About 1690 households and 380 house hold are respectively belong to the SC and ST community. Panchmura is predominantly rural in nature and agriculture is the backbone of its economy. This place is famous for its unique traditional craft of pottery work. Data collection and interpretation: The Panchayate consist of 13 members. Now there are 5 women members in the panchayte body out of 13. Unfortunately there are no Muslim women in the list. I have observed that last three consecutive elections but no Muslim women are elected as member of Panchayte., which is very disappointment.. They cast their vote very enthusiastically. They joined rally in time of election and also engaged themselves in campaigning for their electoral candidates for some informal pressure. Their notion about politics is not very sharp. Most of them are not very aware about State and National politics. To test the reality I have taken interview of 25 Muslim women (from each Gram Samsad) who are selected by systematic random sampling. Six questions (close ended) have been set for taking the interview. 1. Are you satisfied with the performance of the MP and MLA who represents your constituency? 2. Did you vote in last Assembly, Lok shaba and Panchyate election? 3. Can you tell the party symbol of the contesting parties? 4. Do you face there any problem to join in a political party form your family? Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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5. Have you participated any deputation in your locality on political issues? 6. Do you know the party programme of any political party? The respondents give some interesting answer which can be put in that way (all figure in %) Question No.

Positive Answer

Negative Answer

Remain silence

Do not Know

The above responses of Muslim women make it clear the fact that Muslim women are not aware of their voting rights, they are not also exercising it properly them. It is important to note that 55% respondents asserted their independence in the exercise of their franchise. It is encouraging to find that 30% women participated in deputation. Over all ignorance on having knowledge about the party programme and role of MP and MLA of local development is clear sign of political apathy. Their electoral participation has not increased over the years in local level. Even they do not want to be a election candidate on theirown constituencies. If fact, there is no correlation between their population and voting percentage with their numbers in the legislatures of Government or other public/officers.8 Causes of under Representation: Political participation of Muslim women is affected by to type of factors- general and the special. The former is related to every women irrespective of different religion.cast etc.But the later factores are those which exclusively concern with the Muslim women.9 There are some social and economical problem which hamperd their political participation. Eminent Political scientist Prof. Zoya Hasan, in her article ‘Religion and Politics in a Secular State’10 , puts it very delicately that , “ There are nearly sixty million Muslim women India in India, one of the largest female Muslim populations in the world, but they have made few tangible gains during five decades of economic and social development. They are conspicuous by their absence in the world of politics, in the professions, bureaucracy, and universities and public and private sectors. They do not figure in debates on political empowerment, rural poverty, education, or health; their economic vulnerability does not arouse much concern.” Here I try to mention some factors which are exclusively related to the Muslim women community, affecting their political participation. 1. Sense of Insecurity: Although Muslim is the largest minority group in the country, yet compared to other minorities, they are an insecure minority, gripped by a fear psychosis – a product of Indian partition days. Moin Shakir argues that, “Muslim got out of partition as a sense of insecurity, frustration and uncertainty.”11 This has given rise to a minority psyche leading to their alienation and withdrawal from the national mainstream. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Fears and suspicious, whether real or imaginary, have adversely affected the community.12 2. Conservative and Patriarchal Values: Unlike in the Hindu and Christian communities, here religion does not hampered to the advancement of women, the conservative and patriarchal character of the Muslim community, as well as its strong desire to maintain its religious identity, imposes restrictions on it women venturing into public space. Despite living in a secular state, socially marginalized and uneducated Muslim women in particular are significantly affected by the opinions of the Muslim clergy, for instance by fatwas restricting, if not totally curtailing, womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s foray into the public space-be it with regards to education, employment or political participation. 3. Lack of Proper Formal Education: Education is another basic factor which impacts on their political participation and agency options. At 19 percent, the literacy rate of Muslim women is less than half of women form other communities and of the national female literacy rate of 39 percent. Thus for an effective participation of Muslim women in politics, education is a crucial prerequisite, also in order for omen politicians to be able to understand the rules, regulations and intricacies of parliamentary proceedings underlying political decision-making and policy-making.13 So Sacher Committee is right in its observation that the Muslim community has to pay greater attention to education, particularly of women. 4. Absence of Muslim Leader: In the absence of any Muslim leader of nationwide following or any national political party of the Muslim, the leadership of the community rests in the hands of Mullahs who oppose any reforms in the masses. They have accepted change in the Shariat pertaining to criminal code but do not accept any change in Personal Law which adversely affects the women.14 5. Economic Empowerment: It is well known fact that funds are necessary in order to make embark upon a political career. The majority of Muslim women are financially dependent upon their husbands or fathers. Women without money do not have the freedom to make their own decisions and do, what they want. A women who wants to become involved in politics but has no funds must have the support of her family. This can be difficult to obtain because of the cultural way of thinking and poor family backround.15 What They Want: To make a successful and participatory democracy some measures have to be taken by the Govt. Here I suggest some effective proposals which will be the useful alternative. I think Muslim mind also think about these proposals. We have to treat them according to their need or want not through the calculation of politics. In order to break vote banks, one discussion raging among Muslim scholars is that India should repeal its first-past-the-post (FPTP) voting system and opt for proportional representation (PR) instead. In FPTP, the election is won by the candidate receiving the highest votes. If a candidate has polled 30,000 votes in a small constituency, he could still lose to a candidate who has polled 30,001. The criticism of this system is that it forces voters to predict who is most likely to win, even if they would prefer another candidate, because a vote for any other candidate will be â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;wastedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Several analysts consider this a relatively Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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flawed system when there are more than two parties at play. In the PR system, on the other hand, the number of seats won by a party is proportional to the number of votes received. So for example, if 30 per cent of votes support a particular party then toughly 30 per cent of seats will be won by that party. Muslim scholars in India, such as Arshi Khan, feel that this would break the current system where their community is represented poorly in city councils, state Assemblies and in Parliament. Assam has a 30.9 per cent Muslim population but only 2 of its 14 MPs are Muslim. Uttar Pradesh has an 18.5 per cent Muslim population but only 7 of 80 are Muslim MPs. And Karnataka, which has 12.23 per cent Muslims, doesn’t have a single Muslim MP. The PR system is used in several European and South American nations, Including Brazil, Argentina, Germany, the Netherlands and Russia. 16 Women Reservation Bill, will be the another alternative for them. Though it is yet not passed. In the absence of a provision for religion-based reservations in the Constitution, the Women’s Reservation Bill cannot separate sub-quotas for Muslim and Christian women. However, some sections of Muslim women have opposed any sub-quota provisions, holding that the Bill in its present form will automatically benefit women belonging to minorities and Other Backward Classes. Taking a pragmatic stand, these Muslim women have requested Muslim parliamentarians not to stall the Bill. In fact, Muslim women have rightly termed the demand for a sub-quota for Muslim women and others made by some political parties as nothing but an attempt for delay or for own political gains. 17 Muslims want growth not the politics of division and vote bank. It connects us to a range of Muslim voices that are eager to break out of the mould. “I don’t care what happens to Babri Masjid. All I need is that when I go to a government office, I must get my work done quickly and without paying a bribe,” says a 55 year-old teacher from Assam. “The politicians create a bogey of victimhood. If you behave like a victim, you will be treated like one,” says a woman post graduate student from Hyderabad. The Muslim community wants the same amenities and the same opportunities as the rest of the country but has been held back due to vested interests. It now seems that they can no longer be taken for granted by vote-hungry politicians and religious hardliners. There are signs that Muslim are gradually freeing themselves from their clutches and joining the mainstream. When that happens totally, India would have truly arrived. Conclusion Time has come to understand the mind of Muslim women. Inside the layers of the politics of division lie muffled voices that need to be heard, and repressed sentiments that are begging to be acknowledged. Only then will the social indicators start telling a different story. Only then will the fences of ‘us’ and ‘them’ be uprooted for growth for ‘all’. Only then will the idea of a modern, vibrant, secular India genuinely hold true. So we do hope that true inclusive democracy India is not far away. References 1. Francesca Refsum Jenesenius; ‘Was the Delimitation Commission unfair to Muslim?’ Article published in Studies in Indian Polities, Vol- 1, 2 (2013), Sage, New Delhi, page 215. 2. Indian Today, Volume XXXIX Number 11, March, 11-17, 2014 Page 22-23. 3. Vasundharan Mohan Rallapalli; Political Panticipation of Muslim women in India,’article published in Ardrea Fleshehenbeug and Clandin Denichs (Ed), ‘Women and Politics in Asia: A Springboard for Democracy?’ LIT, Verlag 2011, (ISEAS, singapur), page 51-52. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

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Ibid, page-55 webspace.webring.com/people/gh/…/1/Muslim women 2008. Pdf. page 21-22. Ibid, page 17. Frncescn Refsum Jensenius; op.cit. page 216. Shashi Shukla and Sashi Shukla, ‘Political Panticapation of Muslim Women,’ article published in ‘The Journal of Political Science. Vol. 57 No. 1/4 (1996). Indian Political Science Association, page 6. Ibid, page 6. Zoya Hasan, ‘Religion and Politics in a secular State: Law community and Genden’, in Zoya Hasan (Ed). “Politics and the State in India”. Sage, New Delhi 110044, 2000, page 271. Moin Shakir, Muslim in Frce Indian, Kalamkar Prakashan, New Delhi, 1972. page 1. Shashi Shn a and sashi shnkla, op.cit. page 7. Vasundhan Mosun Rallapalli, op.cit. page 62. Shashi Shukla and Sashi Shukla ; op.cit. page 9. Islam and Muslim Society: A Social Science Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2013) www.muslimsocieties.org. India today, op.cit. page 25. Vasundhan Mosun Rallapalli, op.cit. page 46.

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Gaps in Teaching Accountancy at the Higher Secondary Level: An Analysis Samir Kumar Naskar Research Scholar, Department of Education, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, Dist. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: naskar_samirkumar@yahoo.com Introduction It is a common experience of the teachers that, due to many constraints in our educational system the transaction of curriculum through instructional procedure may not always fulfill the aim of Accountancy. It is evident from their results of commerce students at the H.S. level, that most of the students are unable to achieve their expected level of learning. Moreover, due to improper teaching learning procedure the learning gaps of the learners gradually increase in a cumulative manner from one stage to another. Therefore, it is an urgent need in school education to take the proper step to remove the weakness of teaching procedure so that it can help the students to develop proper concept in Accountancy as a subject of commerce. To pin point the gaps in learning and to minimize those gaps always requires a careful planning of classroom teaching. In our classroom situation we have a large number of students differ in their intelligence, achievements, attitudes, interests, socio-economic status and many other components. Under such varied conditions it cannot be possible to achieve the expected goal in learning. But effective teaching learning situations may improve the achievements of students significantly. A serious issue on our classroom teaching is that we do not give proper attention for the development necessary concepts on the contents among the students. Students are instructed mainly for acquiring information according to the will of the teachers. This situation increases the learning gaps among the students. Another issue is that the contents under the subject of Accountancy are not always systematically arranged on the basis of the learning elements in the text books which create significant content gaps. Therefore, it is assume that content gaps, teaching strategy gaps and gaps in knowledge on the proper concepts enhance the future learning gaps. As a result most of the students either achieve very poor marks in the examination or ready to withdraw themselves from learning the subject. In this study the main objectives are to identify the learning gaps, gaps in teaching strategy and content gaps in commerce. On the basis of the identified gaps an effective strategy would be evolved for minimizing the gaps in teaching Accountancy. Rationale In recent years there are many ups and down in World economy and the economic conditions of the developed and developing countries. To regularize the economic resources idea on the business management and Accountancy is very essential. Keeping with a view to the diversification of educated people both Mudaliar and Kothari Commissions recommended multi-purpose curriculum at the secondary and higher secondary levels. As a result commerce has been introduced from higher secondary stages. Considering the felt need in commerce education at the current world economic scenario the researcher wishes to carry out the study for evolving an effective learning set up for successful transaction of commerce curriculum.

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It is expected that the students will be interested and motivated in commerce subjects if the teaching learning process is effective. Moreover to satisfy the interest of the students different modes of teaching strategies should be adopted. But all the approaches which are used by the commerce teachers for teaching commerce are not so effective. Keeping with a view to the objectives it is an urgent need to evolve an effective strategy for teaching commerce. This study will also be conducted to fulfill this need. Conceptual Analysis: This experiment sought to improve the classroom instruction for maximization of learning in accountancy. In such experiment the involvement of a number of real classroom situation, is must. For 1st phase of experiment that is identification of gaps in learning accountancy at the Higher Secondary level, 30 experienced subject teachers were selected and for 2nd phase of experiment, that is to estimate the strategy effectiveness at 60x60 criteria two Higher Secondary school were selected. Accountancy teaching is possible through several instructional processes. In this experiment by analyzing the components of strategies the programmed text Model and Group Interactive Model were selected to verify their effectiveness and the 60x60 criteria of accountancy teaching. The word “interaction” expresses the second principle for interpreting and experience in its educational function and force. It is the mutual or reciprocal influence between individuals or groups, usually with special reference to social and emotional behavior. It assigns equal rights to both factors in experience objective and internal conditions. Any normal experience is interplay of these two conditions. In the present experiment emphasis was given on the interaction between teaching strategy and content organizations. Teaching unit is a teacher’s plan for instructing a specific group of students in a specific unit of work. Of late the educationists in our country have given considerable though, to the development of improved type of instructional materials to strengthen the qualitative improvement of school education. The units under the experiment were arranged according to strategies. Each sub-unit was so designed that it might be completed in one class teaching forty minutes. Learning materials, specially prepared for the learned on the selected units was provided as alternative of text book, which were made available to them for the time being. All the students were reinforced by the special arrangement of teaming materials and the students under any group would be able to learn the units up to the level of mastery. This term strategy was used by Bruner in “Education and Psychology. It was a technique used in learning or thinking for problem solving simultaneous scanning. It is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, desired learning behaviour in terms of goals of instructions. Strategy is a target oriented predetermined set of operations in a planned environment. Strategy is a set of instructional situations controlled and created by the teacher for effective learning and growth of pupils. It is combination of methods materials and media for desired out come. In dictionary of Education, achievement is defined as the performance in school or college in a standard series of educational tests. The term is used more generally to describe performances in the subject of curriculum. Generally achievement of students is, defined in

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terms of behavioural objectives. “Achievement is the accomplishment of which educational object or goals have been attained. Educational achievement acquired knowledge during a particular course in specific subject area. According to Adkins (1958) achievement consists of three areas, (i) increasing in variety of stimulus dimensions to which the learner will-be sensitive and responsive, (ii) increase the number of new responses to be made m novel stimulus situations and (iii) increase the number of new responses that will be mad, familiar or already discriminated stimulus components. According to International Dictionary of Education – “Retention is remaining impression of experiences or learning”. Wood worth described, “Retention as one of the four memory processes, the other being memorizing, recall or recognition". Retention seems too dependent upon chemical or psychological changes in the brain. It refers to the amount of material remaining over a period has been defined as the amount of learning experience or knowledge correctly remembered after two weeks period of time. Learning gap is indicated as the deviation between expected and achieved performance in learning contents. Through the process of learning learners acquire some knowledge and skills. Those skills can be measured through the test of performance on the learning unit. In terms of behevioural objectives of teaching maximization of learning is considered as the expected outcome of teaching- learning process. It is presumed that every care is taken to achieve the goal through class-room instruction but it has been found from experiences that in many teaching-learning situations all the learners are unable to achieve the expected goal of performance. The deviation of achievement from, expected goal is considered as learning gaps. Many factors are responsible for producing learning gaps of students on learning concepts. When the students have deficiency in prerequisite learning, then in further learning situation they fail to learn properly the related new concepts. Curriculum is framed with the Specific target to develop the behavioural pattern among the students within the scheduled time frame in each Class through among instructional strategies. The achievement tests scores reflect the outcome of behavioural pattern of students. Thus poor achievement indicated as learning gaps. In this study the level of expected outcomes ns suggested by the experts was 60x60 criteria on achievement test scores. When the performance of students falls below the expected criteria then it is considered as the deviation of achievement on the learning unit. Hence, the difference between the criteria of achievement 60X60 and the scores of student in achievement are considered as learners own learning gaps. According to International Dictionary of Education 'teaching is a process to impart knowledge or skills to another; to give instruction to another; to educate or to train another or to facilitate learning.' Conventional teaching is a process which generally follows by the teacher for class room instruction delivering. Conventional approach of teaching is the method using by the teachers under normal classroom situation in a school. According to G.B. Shah — “It may differ from teacher to teacher but it generally implies the process of lecturing, discussing, note giving etc." In conventional method of teaching the teacher dominates the class and develops a lesson following the Herbration's steps. In this approach the teacher delivers his lesson through oral interaction or through, question-answer. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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According to criteria of teaching models it is a high structured teaching approach, because the teachers control classroom environment. In conventional approach emphasis is given on the process of rote memorization for learning concepts under subjects. It is widely used group instructional approach with a very minimum infrastructure. According to International Dictionary of Education- curriculum is an organized course of study undertaken by a student in or under the protection of a School, College, University or other Institution of learning. Curriculum is some total of experiences of an educational institution. It is the set of studies organized for a particular group of study by a school or college. It is also defined as the structural set of learning experiences aimed at achieving such outcome. Curriculum is the collective programme of activities explicitly organized by the teachers in a school; It is a means by which students may attain through learning a set of objectives as desired by the teachers. It is bend and balanced matters of syllabus, by which the learners can climb up to the goal of education. In this study the W. B. Council of Higher Secondary Education defines curriculum as the course contents under the syllabus of Commerce approach. In the present study curriculum of accountancy has been specified for class XI-XII; which is an integral part of Commerce course approved by the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education According to the Dictionary of Education — "strategy is the technique used in learning or thinking “strategy is an instructional plan of curricular transaction with minimum learning gaps within the schedule time. Strategy is a plan of teaching for executing effective teaching activities. Strategy is the combination of different sets of activities such as analysis of contents, preparation of learning materials, planning and presentation of learning materials and evaluation of outcomes. Strategy is a plan on design to achieve a particular -reaching goal. It is an art of planning and conducting teaching-learning activities. In this study two different strategies were selected for effective curricular transaction. Transaction is a process of agreement or action of conducting teaching process for achieving the goal. Curricular transaction is generally means to carry out the teachinglearning programme for successful completion of the curriculum specified for a Class. Effective curricular transaction means formation of a bridge among the curriculum of different classes by which the pupil learn satisfactorily in all aspects of behavioral objectives including a well preparation for next learning elements. Accountancy is an integral part of commerce in the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education. It has fixed content materials for each class and units. In this study recognition of content from the curriculum of accountancy, organization of content materials, interpolation for pre-requisite learning, treatment through specially designed instructional materials according to recognized content, simultaneous remediation through evaluationthese total approach and activity is necessary for effective curricular transaction. References AGRAWAL, J.C.: Teaching Commerce (2nd Ed.: Vikas Publication; 2009. EDWARD, W.S. & et. al.: The Educations’ Encyclopedia; PrenticeHall, Inc. Englesweed Cliffe, N. J.: 1961. GAGE, N. L.: Educational Psychology; Rand, Me. College Pub. Company; Chicago: 1979.

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LEWIS, D. G.: Experimental Design in Education; London, University of London Press Ltd: 1968. MONDAL, D. K.: Method of Teaching Accountancy and Book keeping (2nd Ed.); Rita Publication-2009. PAGE, TERRY & THOMAS: International Dictionary of Education, ELBS, London: 1979. SINGH, Y. K.: Teaching of Commerce; APH Publication: 2007. SUKHIA, P.S. & et. al.: Elements of Educational Research (2nd edn.) ; Allied Pub. Pvt. Ltd. Bombay; 1966. THURSTONE, R. L. & HAGEN, E.: Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education (3rd edn.); Wiley Eastern Pvt. Ltd.; New Delhi; 1970. VAN DALEN, DCABOLD, R.: Understanding Educational Research (4th edn.) Mc. Grow Hill Book Co. New York: 1962. VARMA, V.: An Introduction to Educational and Psychological Research; Azad Pub. House Bombay: 1965. WHITNEY, F. L.: The elements of Research; Englewoods Cliffs; New Jersey; Prentice Hall, Inc: 1950.

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Despair and Delight in the Novels of Mulk Raj Anand T. Pushpanathan Assistant Professor, Department of English, SCSVMV University, Kanchipuram, E-mail: pushpanath.scsvmv@gmail.com Mulk Raj Anand is a novelist with subtle nuances. His early life in the cantonment was spent in company with his friends ranging from all categories. He watched with his own eyes the poverty and the struggle of people around him. This became the theme of his early novels. But with growing years and his ennobling experiences, Anand’s pen spilled a cornucopia of subjects. His preliminary works establish a communication with his cronies to foster friendship and be get love. Anand is not a novelist of fixed category. He has been called an ‘advocate of the lowly’ (Prasad 87), people also recognize him as ‘voice of suffering humanity’ (Burke 170). Despair and delight is a continuing theme of his fiction. One finds it difficult to define despair and delight. The two terms can be illustrated with sunshine and shower, sun and slum, happiness and sorrow et al. Life moves on the two wheels of despair and delight, which give a slice to our existence. Anand’s protagonists seem to struggle between the two terms to establish a meaning despite the objections of society and obstructions of external factors. Anand’s novels have attracted world wide attention of critics because of multitude appeals. Each novel of Anand offers several layers of despair and delight. One can hear ‘echoes of all kinds’ (Anand 633) in his fiction. The numberless motivations in Anand’s fiction give Anand an edge over his contemporary novelists. P.K. Rajan spends fulsome praises on Anand. The spiritual metaphysical and lyrical quality of Anand’s novels moves him. Each novel is a blend of despair and delight. Many critics have tried to explain Anand’s despair and delight in socio-political terms. They have failed to appreciate the sparks and have tried to circumscribe his fiction. K.R.S. Iyengar recognizes Anand’s talent and calls him a novelist who invokes multitude of responses. C.D. Narasimhaiah discovers in Anand’s fiction ‘human centrality’. D. Riemenschneider explores the problems of labour and fulfillment in the dimensions of despair and delight in Anand’s novels. He highlights their effect on the emotional and spiritual make-up of the hero in each novel. Since most of the heroes of Anand labour, it is viewed not only as a social activity but also as an instrument of self-realisation. Most of the characters of Anand are forced to sell their labour in order to survive. Their social and economic position is unalterable in a society crippled by caste-system. Therefore, alienation is for Reimenschender, not only the result of capitalistic forces but also feudal forces which are non-economic. This combination of economic and non-economic forces brings about a basic change in the hero in each novel of Anand. Reimenschender does not tell the whole truth if he emphasizes the dialectical relationship between man and society. No novel of Anand is imprisoned in Marxian ideas. Therefore, the focus on the pattern of despair and delight purely in ideological terms will mean circumscribing the scope of Anand’s fiction. Coolie (1936), in a very significant way conveys the various forms of alienation. It is the individual’s goodwill which is a potential solution to man’s alienation. The pattern of despair and delight acquires a spiritual tinge when Rameshwar Gupta asserts that his work rises above ideology and feeling and passion and touches the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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transcendent. He adds a new dimension to the fiction of Anand when he remarks that Anand could not deny the irrational or the super-rational in man. He, like Hemingway, also looked to the cosmos for alliance with its energy. Various critical responses to the fiction of Anand have stimulated us to look at the pattern of despair and delight from different angles. Tagore is a romantic contemplative with a lack of vigour but Anand’s heroism is the infinite resilience of the human soul. Anand goes beyond the inherited romanticism and faces the contemporary world with all its miseries and struggles. He believes that man can emerge from the breakdown, the disruption and the decay. It is not without significance that harmony is the hallmark of Anand’s vision in his fiction. Anand seems close to existentialists who consider life as a continuous struggle. The struggle to come out of the adverse situations in life reflects man’s realization of his being. H.M. Williams rightly observes that Anand does not dwell on the image of a life-negating, passive and contemplative India. Anand, according to him, recreates the agreed political tension and social unrest of the thirties in his novels. This does not mean that the pattern in his novel blindly subscribes to the Marxist pattern. The nature of pattern in his fiction is hinted at in his following remark about Coolie: “It is more than a social documentary, more than a tract for times”. (Williams, 30) He does not make too much of “lurid painting” in Anand’s Two Leaves and a Bud (1937). S.C. Harrex emphasizes the sociopolitical messianic form of his fiction. The authorial self of Anand is rightly described as a dual personality combining the social observer and the romantic prophet. The objective social realist–form of his fiction also accommodates the subjective life of dream. The traditional self of an Indian gives Anand despair and the modern ego brings for him liberating delight. It is not without significance that Anand describes the whole process as the poetic realism which is a “synthesis of bifurcated subjective formalism and social realism”. (Harrex, 156) The hero in Anand’s novel is hunted down, trapped and arrested in his growth by the overpowering influences of an outer reality. What is more significant than this spectacle of despair is the fact that the outer reality is also ruined. Anand affectionately renders the qualities of resilience, courage and heroism. A.V. Krishna Rao is not fair to Anand when he says that Anand unveils rather than reveals human character in action. He under-rates his genius when he defines his individual as functional phenomena operating on the outer surface of life. Anand’s fiction is not suspended out of time and space. This should not encourage us to conclude that he rejects the essentially non-human and super-human attitude. If Anand’s doctrine of deeper socialism is preceded by an exposure to a number of viewpoints, this is not without the despair and delight of soul-searching. The honest intellectual process that leads Anand to his own formulation ignores neither despair nor delight. Man has been defined as a constellation of selves. Anand constructs order out of the chaos, strife, confusion and suffering stirs up his hope and heroism. A great novel teaches us to protest rather than to assent to the old order. It is an affront to simple expectation. Since a great novel is a network of significances, the pattern of despair and delight is to be explored in its various manifestations. The two-fold continuum – external and internal will embrace both what is environmental and what is archetypal. There are moments in each novel when Anand will jettison causality and annihilate historicity. His hero is not fully enmeshed in the temporarily of events. He will also sustain and preserve his primordial self. What is forcefully emphasized in his autobiographical novels is the ontological definition of the protagonist. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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There is no substance in the remark that Anand reduces our vocabulary and simplifies and impoverishes our view of the inner life. Despair, delight and discovery converge and interact meaningfully in his fiction. Anand is able to accommodate his wide range of concerns in his fiction. His human concern for the under-dog is much more than his pre-occupation with economic determinism. It is well known that Iqbal made a tremendous impact on the mind of Anand. It is not out of place to refer to some of his views to give the pattern of despair and delight a philosophical perspective. Iqbal was critical of Plato because he had democrated between the phenomenal and the transcendental. The individual for Iqbal is a self-contained exclusive centre and he travels from chaos to cosmos. Iqbal emphasizes the rise of man from a primitive state of instinctive appetite to the vigorous possession of his free self. Man’s ego is always aspirational. Nature, according to Iqbal, does not bifurcate itself into the physical and the mental. Matter is spirit in space-time reference. If the phenomenal world is a myth for Plato, he falls down into a vague and obscured idealism. Iqbal has a taste for the phenomenal world and for man’s action. Life is a quest for him and the self of man is in perpetual uproar. For Iqbal, intuition and intellect need each other for their mutual regeneration. He always looks for the luminous point, the life-spark and the reliance of the self. It is love which fortifies the self of man. The resolution of conflicts into a healthy pattern is for Iqbal a process of configurationism. He does not share Nietzsche’s theory of eternal return which perpetuates a deadly fatalism. The resurrection of the human spirit is according to Iqbal, the consummation of the life process within the ego. Nature is for him not a static fact situated in a void but a structure of events showing a continuous creative flow. A pure immateriality situated in an absolute peace is for Iqbal unworkable. The movement of the world is for him the actualization of open possibilities. Man lives in a growing universe which develops and reforms human ego. What is remarkable about human life is the fact that the inner life of man is a perpetual flow, a constant mobility. The views of Tagore and Radhakrishnan on Man and his destiny find their echoes in the novels of Anand. Man, according to Tagore, is in possession of a spirit which has its enormous capital. Man has in him not only the noise of the earth but also the silence of the sea and the music of the year. These are in the character of Anand’s protagonist two selves – “the self which displays itself and the self which transcends itself” (Tagore, 86). The sacrificing self reaches into the infinite. The potentiality of perfection in man outweighs actual contradictions. Man can transform himself into a vigorous spiritual shoot. The blurring of man’s consciousness is his real bondage. Man in Anand’s fiction is a complex, multi-dimensional being. He is compelled by the laws of nature and driven by its impulses and yet he is more than nature. He is also the spirit who stands outside of nature. For the delight of man, according to Radhakrishnan, nothing is to be rejected and everything is to be raised. The empirical man is not sufficient because he dances to the tunes of stimuli and is in constant war with the environment. The empirical man has to achieve self-transcendence by exploring new horizons. Man can contend with the disruptive forces and can conquer them. If there is discord in life, it is only a stage and not the terminus. Life is a pattern of despair and delight and it is not without its dynamic thrust. Man has to make and remake himself for an authentic living. The nightmare of living in a hostile universe brings fear and disquiet for man; but the solitary contemplative sinks again and again into the quiet of self-communion.

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Anand had no craving for the subtler delight of self-hypnosis. If revolution is a violent upsurge, it is without delight. What can bring delight for man is his desire for togetherness. Life is for Anand vital, vivid and intense and the tendentious, categorical imperatives of the dying world were meaningless to him. The journey from despair to delight is complete if we advance from our infancy to a more graceful and worthy self hood. The delight of Anand manifests itself in the creation of several idealistic characters who optimistically colour the climax in every novel. Anand clings in every novel to that aspect of himself which asserts itself against the despair of Camus and Sartre. Anand was keenly aware of the upward thrust of the ego of his protagonist. Independence for Anand is not only freedom from the alien rule but also the freedom from outworn, ethical fetters that bruised Indian spirit. Anand’s pattern of despair and delight combines the most significant features of history, psychology and philosophy. Anand as a novelist was engaged in a search for grasping the absence of human living. He is rightly described as the most conscious point of his age. The downtrodden people were for him the resilient core of civilization. Anand wrote about contemporary battles and agitation and gradually moved to a spiritual centre. Untouchable (1935) is a novel of protest against poverty, exploitation and discrimination. The feudal system symbolized by the lecherous Brahmin priest and the huge, colossal temple gives the hero despair. It is the denunciation of the decadence which delights Bhaka. Gandhi and the poet symbolize an assault on the old order and orthodoxy. The poet rails at the hangovers of the past. Anand glorifies the pastoral order in Coolie (1936), but he is not the uncritical worshipper. The machine is presented in the novel as something marvelous and menacing. The fact that industrialization debases and brutalizes can not obscure the human impulses which bring delight to human society. The callous industrial climate can not erase human emotions like brotherhood and friendship. What we have in the novel is the optimistic close rather than the cynical rounding off. In Two Leaves and a Bud (1937), we meet the protagonist who is old and beaten and not without recalcitrance and resilience. We notice in him a wild urge for living and loving which is thwarted in the callous colonial climate. Anand was the firely voice of the people. He realized the frustrations and their suppressed yearning for freedom. It is for us a conventional response. It is evident that Anand was sensitive to the stresses of his times and he tried to find a human solution to the problem of human suffering caused by a variety of factors. Anand’s fiction, on final analysis, is more than the expression of his self or the reflection of a social process. The total meaning in his fiction is the result of a process of accretion. Doubt and despair, dream and delight converge and interact meaningfully in his fiction. What P.K. Rajan says about the pattern of cultural orientation in the fiction of Anand is closer to the pattern of despair and delight to be explored and grasped in its various contexts – doctrinal, libidinal, cultural and philosophical. Dr. K.N. Sinha admires Anand for his vision of the vast human concourse and for his serene contemplation of characters and situations. There is a greater stress on delight than on despair on final analysis on his fiction. This is forcefully stated by Dr. K.N. Sinha in his following lines: His knowledge of life deepened with the passage of years, leading him to a mellow and serene and blessed contemplation of the human condition”. (Sinha, 134) Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Works cited • • • • • • • • • • •

Anand, Mulk Raj, and Atma Ram. Mulk Raj Anand: A Reader: Selections from His Fictional and Non-fictional Writings. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2005. Print. Burke, Rupalee. “Mulk Raj Anand’s Coolie: A Story of Human Relationships.” Critical Response to V.S. Naipaul and Mulk Raj Anand. Ed. Amar Nath Prasad. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2003. Print. HARREX, S.C. “Western Ideology and Eastern Forms of Fiction: The Case of Mulk Raj Anand.” Asian and Western Writers in Dialogue: New Cultural Identities. Ed. Amirthanayagam, Guy. London: Macmillan, 1982: 142-58. Iyengar, K.R. Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. New Delhi: Sterling, 1962. Print. Narasimhaiah, C.D. The Swan and the Eagele: Essays on Indian English Literature, New Delhi: Vision Books. 1999. Prasad, Amar Nath. Critical Response to V.S. Naipaul and Mulk Raj Anand. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 2003. Print. Prof. H. M. Williams: Studies in Modern Indian Novel in English. Writers Workshop, Calcutta. 1973. Vol. I, p. 31. Rajan, P. K., Studies in Mulk Raj Anand. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, 1986. Rao, A. V. Krishna. The Indo Anglian Novel and the Changing Tradition. Mysore: Rao and Raghvan, 1972. Print. Sinha K.N. Mulk Raj Anand. 1972. New York: Twayne Publishers Tagore, Rabindranath. Sadhana: The Realisation of Life. S.l.: Book Tree,US, 2012. Print.

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Ahom Architecture: An Ode to the Architecture of Assam Rikimi Madhukaillya Assistant Professor, Pearl Academy, A-21/13, Naraina Industrial Area, Phase II, Near Shadipur Metro Station, New Delhi, Delhi 110028 ABSTRACT The article gives a glimpse to the rich cultural and architectural history of Assam, which is one of the primary states of North-East India. For hundreds of years, nobody cared about the rich cultural and architectural heritage of the state as it was going through violent armed struggles. It traces the history and culture of Assam from historical point of view and underlines beauty of its Architectures and their specifications.

Key Words: Assam, Violence, History of Art of Assam, Ahom Kingdom, Medieval Architecture Ahoms traced their origin to the Tai race. Rangpur, the ancient cultural-political capital of Assam known as Sivasagar today, is 400 kms away from Guwahati, the current capital of the Assam. Sivasagar used to be the most important site for art and architecture during the Ahom rule. It is said that the term â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Ahomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was derived from the word Asama, meaning unequal in reference to the valor and fighting skills they possessed. The present name of this region, Assam (locally Axom) is a derivative of the word Ahom. Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha was the first king of Ahom who accepted Brahmanical religion officially and started building temples locally called Dol. The architectures of this period could be divided into three categories, i.e. the temple architectures, palatial-residential architectures and pyramidal burial mounds. This paper is going to focus on the first of the types with brief introduction to the other two as well. This region had possessed its special skill of making multi-storied houses with traditional and perishable materials like bamboo, wood and cane, similar to the tradition of architectures of south-east Asian countries, since its beginning. So, historians believe that most of the live-in architectures have weathered and perished away with time. This type of architecture is called Kareng. Two amongst these three significant Karengs are interconnected with a secret underground route, which had been also connected to the nearby river Dikhou. The distance between the two karengs are about 8kms and the length of the tunnel to the river is about 5kms. The larger kareng near the Sivasagar town is also called Talatal ghar which has a maze like structure with identical doorways to confuse the intruder or invader. There are various versions of stories of curious visitors entering the tunnel and never found their way out. Archeological Survey of India has blocked the entry of the tunnel a couple of years back to avoid accidents. The other Kareng at Gargaon has four storied tapering elevation. The structure resembles Panch Mahal of Bishnupur-Bankura of Bengal. Each floor has multiple staircases mostly leading to blind doors and only some leading to the next floor to confuse outsiders. This was perhaps a strategy to confuse the invaders while the royal family could secretly sneak into the river through tunnel and run away. According to the textsi, Gargaon Kareng ghar has two storied (much larger than other ones) underground portion.

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The third of its kind is called Rang Ghar meaning a house of entertainment. The king along with his ministers and extended royal family used to visit and enjoy various traditional and ceremonial games and performances such as Monh juj(Bull fight), Kukura juj(Cock fight), Koni Juj(Egg fight) etc. on the field on front called Bakori particularly during the Bihus.ii It is unimaginable today to think of a pavilion or an architecture entirely dedicated to entertainment with huge openings on each walls and no division of space in a floor. The ceiling has been decorated with fish scale like pattern, while the exterior has two makaras on both the sides of the roof reminding Tibbetan, Thai pagoda architectures. The roof is a prototype of Do-chala type of Bengal and Assam.

Maidam, the burial mounds, could be compared to the pyramids of Egypt and the stupas of Buddhists. The relics or bodies of the royal family members and important noble men used to be buried under these structures of terracotta bricks and stone forming a pyramidal structure. The status and hierarchy of the dead person determines the height and size of the Maidam. The maidams of Gadadhar Singha or Supatpha(1618-1696) and Rudra Singha or Sukrumpha are amongst the largest which is about 15mts from the tomb proper. Saraideo remains the most important sites for the maidams.

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Dr. Pradip Acharya, the former director of Archeological Survey of Assam wrote, “the pyramidal mounds’ tapering towards the top suggests conformity with belief that the dead could walk up to the heaven. In fact, similar royal tombs with similar structures exist in China, some of which are thousands of years old. It is believed that royal people were buried under these maidams with plenty of gold and wealth for the life after death. Resultantly the maidams had become prey for the invaders including Moghul, the Burmese and then followed by the British and some locals who had dug open most of these maidams. Let us take, Jaimoti’s Maidam or Fakua Dol dedicated to the mother of Rudra Singha, who had sacrificed her life for the sake of welfare of her husband and the land. Her death was quite torturous that even her body couldn’t be found. Rudra Singha after becoming the king had patronized this maidam and replica made out of gold which is supposed to be buried under this maidam. Every year during the holi festival, a local ritual takes place to commemorate her martyr. Dol, the religious architecture, is one of the most important examples of the excellence of Ahom Architecture. Ahom kings had also commissioned temple tanks with every dol. Some of the significant tanks are like Jaisagar (almost 1square km area), Gaurisagar, Rudrasagar, Sivasagar, Borpukhuri, Athaisagar etc. The stylistics of the Dol type of architecture resembles North Indian temple architectures at large and also has great similarity with the architectures of Pala and Chandela dynasty. Sikhara or the Mastaka part resembles the Bengal Teracotta temples of Bishnupur. Dols generally have four anga shikharas attached to the gandi part. Every shikhara has 2 to 5 upside down kalashas one on top of other. The top most part is made out of solid gold which holds the ayudha of the temple. Mostly these intricate kalashas have been replaced with concrete ones, because the older gold ones were stolen by British and other invaders. The local Archeological Survey of Assam caretaker informed that the golden sikhara of one thmajor temple Sivadol had fallen from its position about a decade back, which was measured as 1.5mts tall. The overall Dol is 37metres tall and 61.75 meters in breadth. It was built in 1655 AD by Queen Ambika Kunwori during the reign of Shiva Singha. The base of these dols is close to the ground level unlike the high raised platforms of other north Indian temples.

The ground plan of the Dol can be divided into two parts known as Baat sora and Garbha griha. Baat sora generally has a dochala or charchala type of roof. The outer walls of the garbhagrihas are either plain only with sculptural niches or projections. The sculptures in the niches and other minor ornamentation is made out separately on terracotta or stone; at some rare cases also directly made out of plaster of the walls. This plaster is the important Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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characteristics of Ahom architecture which is made out of edibles, like Borali fish, duck eggs, molasses, raisin, sticky rice and burnt snail shell lime to stop decaying process of these foods before drying. In contrast to the exterior, the interior is simple and without any decorative elements. Simplicity is the identity of Ahom architecture. Baat sora has low doorways on each side to lit up the area with natural light, whereas Garbha griha is dark, gloomy and a damp space. None of these garbhagrihas have circumambulation but none the less these are not narrow and suffocating areas like the other north Indian temples. Rather, it gives the devotee a serene feeling with the high ceiling. No iron rods have been used to make or support these structures, only the Archeological survey has attached iron beams while restoring them, which is doubtful as instead of helping the structure, iron beams are becoming burden for most of the Dols. The early architects and craftsmen had used a very common technique where they used to fill the negative space with clay and then make the superstructure and scope out the clay part after the superstructure was dried. The humble architecture style of Assam opens up a huge area of un-researched dimension to the greater survey of history of art in India. Questions emerge as the negligence of the mainstream has been avoiding theses areas for hundreds of years. My paper is a small initiative towards that direction. Bibliography Barua, Ghanakanta. Ahoma Praimara. 2nd ed. Unknown, 1936. Print. Barua, Harakanta. Assam Buranji, Or, A History Of Assam, From The Commencement Of The Ahom Rule To The British Occupation Of Assam In 1826 A.D.. [Gauhati]: Dept. of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam, 1930. Print. Baruah, S.L. Last Days Of Ahom Monarchy: A History Of Assam From 1769-1826. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1993. Print. Bhuyan, Suryya Kumar. Assam Buranji, Or, A Chronicle Of Assam From The Earliest Ahom Kings To Swargadeo Gadadhar Singha. Shillong, Assam: Government of Assam in the Dept. of Historical and Antiquarian studies, 1960. Print. Dowson, John. A Classical Dictionary Of Hindu Mythology And Religion, Geography, History And Literature. London: Trubner, 1879. Print. Gait, Edward Albert. A History Of Assam. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co., 1906. Print. Gogoi, Padmeswar. The Tai And The Tai Kingdoms. [Gauhati]: Dept. of Publication, Gauhati University, 1968. Print. Harakanta Baruwa Sadaramin, and Suryya Kumar Bhuyan. Assam Buranji. Assam: N.p., 1930. Print. Wijeyewardene, Gehan, and E. C Chapman. Patterns And Illusions. Canberra: Richard Davis Fund and Dept. of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1992. Print. i

Buranji, the form of written history patronized by the Ahoms. The main festival of the region celebrating season. Bohag Bihu being Rongali celebrates new year, spring and youthfulness whereas Magh Bihu being Bhogali celebrates gathering of crop, leisure and fullness of food grains.

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The Concept of Nirvāna in the Light of Buddhism Dr. Kuheli Biswas Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, District – Nadia, West Bengal, E-mail: 100kuhelibiswas@gmail.com ABSTRACT The main aim of Indian philosophy is to search the reality and liberation. Every Indian philosophical school admits suffering and in this respect they discuss it and the way of liberation. According to all schools, ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and suffering and without the knowledge of reality it cannot be achieved. Every Indian school, except the Cārvāka, says that the concept of liberation is the highest end of life (caram o param purūṣārtha). The Buddha’s teaching is contained in the four noble truths (duḥkha, duḥkha-samudaya, duḥkha-nirodha, duhkha-nirodha mārga). The Buddha believed that if the causes of suffering are removed, then suffering would cease. The third noble truth is called nirvāna which leads to the peace and it is the highest goal. According to Buddha, it is ultimate objective of human aspiration and a supramundane state which can be realized through virtue (śīla), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (prajñā). In Buddhism, nirvāṇa, dharma, pratītyasamutpāda, tathatā, śūnyatā are identical term.

Key Word: duḥkha (suffering), nirvāṇa (Reality), dharma, śīla (virtue), śūnyatā The present paper is an attempt to explain the concept of nirvāṇa in the light of Buddhism. Buddhism is broadly divided into the two well known schools-Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna. It is indeed true that both the schools are closely related and their differences are very delicate. Sautrāntika and Vaibhāṣika schools are known as ‘Sarvāstivadins’ and they are realists. Mahāyāna school is also divided into two broad schools, namely-Mādhyamika philosophy or śunyavāda and yogācāra or vijñānavāda. Mahāyāna school is idealist. The Meaning of Nirvāṇa: Etymologically, the pāli word ‘nirvāṇa’ may be explained that nirvāṇa is composed of ‘ni’ and vāna or bāna. ‘Ni’ means “without” or ‘annihilation’, it is a negative approach. ‘Vāna’ or ‘bāna’ means ‘carving (tanhā). So, the word ‘nirvāṇa’ ’ means annihilation of carving. So, it means a state without craving, the destruction of craving conquers all sorrows (taṇhakkhayo sabbadukkham jināti).1 It also means the blowing out, as it is composed of ni = absence and vā to blow (ni+vā);it signifies blowing or extinction of fires(rāga,dosa and moha) as it is said in Suttaniphāta : “The wise go out like the flame of this lamp (nibbanti dhīrā yathāyampadīpo)”2The another meaning of the term ‘nirvāṇa’ also means going out of the forest or destruction of the forest for ni means ‘annihilation ‘and ‘vāna’ means ‘forest’. The forest here signifies the five aggregates (pancakkandhā). It can be expressed as the extinction of. In other words the cessation of the process of becoming is nirvāna. In Buddhism nirvāṇa is dharma and it may be compared to the oceans. In Samyutta Nikāya , nirvāṇa means as flame blown out by wind goes to rest, and is lost to cognizance, just so the sage who is released from name and body, goes to rest and is lost to cognizance.3 And there is no measure to him who has gone to rest; he keeps nothing that could be named. When all dharmas are abolished, all parts of speech are also abolished4.” According to Buddhist literature, ‘nirvāṇa’ means a transformed state of personality and consciousness and this transformation state may be described in negatives terms as the destruction of taṇhā (craving) and āsavas (obsessions) and in positive terms as the emergence of prajñā or sambodhi (transcendental wisdom) and śanti (peace). From the transformed psychological state, it can be said that ‘nirvāṇa’ has sd a metaphysical status which is different dimension Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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of being. The Buddha expresses it as follows: “There is an Unborn, Unbecome, Unmade, Uncompounded; for if there were not this Unborn, Unbecome, Unmade, Uncompounded, there would be apparently no escape from this here that is born, become, made and compounded4” According to Udana, Atthi bhikkhave tad āyatanaṁ, yattha n’eva pathavī na apo| na tejo va vāyo naākāsānañcāyatanam,viññāṇāñcayatanaṁnaākiǹcaññāyatanaṁnanevasaññānāsaññānāñāy atanaṃ nāyam loko na paraloko ubho candimasūriyā, tad aham bhīkkhave n’eva āgatiṁ vadāṁi na gatiṁ, na thithiṁ na cutiṁ na upapattim appatiṭṭhaṁ appatiṭṭhaṁ-appavattaṁ anārammaṇaṁ eva taṁ,eś ev’anto dukkhassā ti (Udāna, 80) “there is that sphere wherein is neither earth nor water nor air; wherein is neither the sphere of infinite space nor of infinite consciousness nor of nothingness / nor of neither-ideation-nor, non ideation; where there is neither this world nor a world beyond nor both together nor moon nor sun; I say there is neither coming from it nor going it; it has neither duration nor decay; there is neither beginning nor establishment; there is no result and no cause; this verily is the end of suffering’ . Different kinds of Nirvāṇa in Buddhism: 1). Sa-upādiśeṣa Nirvāṇa5 2). Anupādiśeṣa Nirvāṇa Sa-upādiśeṣa nirvāṇa means that an arhat6 who is removed from the pain of saṃsāra but is still in this embodies state possessed of the five aggregates and another anupādiśeṣa nirvāṇa is the complete cessation of the flux of physical and psychological status. It is state of the complete happiness (pramaṃ sukhaṃ), complete calming and also utter ceasing of all sensations. According to Udāna, “the body broke up, perception ceased, all feelings cooled, all formations stilled, consciousness disappeared”7 Apart from the two types of nirvāṇa mentioned in the pāli texts, another kind of nirvāṇa is called apratisthita nirvāṇa8 it has been admitted by the Mahāyānists .It is the state of freedom from all worldly suffering. “It is, therefore, the state of the Bodhisattva who, out of infinite compassionfor suffering beings, refuses to enter into final release and words for the redemption of the world. The Bodhisattvas are able to work for the liberation of all beings without attachment and fear and without being bound the snares of the world on account on their realization of śūnyatā”9 Common Views on nirvāṇa in Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna According to both philosophy, nirvāṇa is inexpressible and it has no origin, no change, and no decay. It is deathless (amṛta) and it has to be realized within oneself. It is the state of peace (śama or upaśama).The word ‘nirvāṇa’ literally means ‘extinguished’ and therefore ‘tranquil’10. There are four ways in which ‘nirvāṇa’ is generally described in Buddhist literature; viz., (1) negative, (2) positive, (3) paradoxical and (4) symbolic11.From the negative point of view nirvāṇa is (1) amrta (deathless), (2) unchanging, (3) imperishable (acyuta), (4) without end (ananta), (5) non-production, (6) extinction of birth, (7) unborn, (8) not liable to dissolution (apalokina), (9) uncreated (abhutam), (10) free from disease, (11) unaging (12) freedom from transmigration, (13) anuttaram (utmost), (14) cessation of pain (duhkha nirodha), (15) final release (apavagga) and positively it can be said that nirvāṇa is (1) peace (śama or upaśama) ; The following verse of Mahāparinirvānasutra brings out this idea very clearly12 “Impermanent, indeed, are all conditioned things. It is their very nature to come into being and then to ease.”13Nirvāṇa is śama or upaśama,it connotes extinction of Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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craving, cessation off suffering and a state of calm. Nirvāṇa is the supreme bliss (nibbānam paramam sukham).Nirvāṇa is sambodhi or prajňā (transcendental wisdom). It is jňāna (illumination) or vijňānam—pure, radiant consciousness and security (kşamam). Paradoxically, according to Prajňāpāramitā, nirvāṇa is abiding in a state of non-abiding.14 The only way of reaching the goal is to realize that in the ultimate sense there is no goal to be reached. Nirvāṇa is reality which is sūnya (viod). From symbolical standpoint, nirvāṇa is the cool cave, the island in the floods, the further shore, the holy city, the refuge, the shelter, and the asylum.15 Different Interpretations of nirvāṇa: There are different aspects of Buddhist Philosophy in which Mahayana differs from Hinayana.The Hinayanists believes that nirvāṇa is eternal (nitya), blissful (sukha).On the other hand The Madhyamika says that there can be no prediction of Nirvana. For Hīnayāna it is something to be acquired but the Madhayamikas believe that is not something to be acquired16. Nāgārjuna describes nirvāṇa in the following words17, “nirvāṇa is that which is neither abandoned nor acquired, it neither a thing annihilated, nor a thing eternal; it ether destroyed nor produced”18.To quote Chandrakīrti sarvaprapañcopaśamaśiualakṣaṇaṁ nirvāṇam 19. Nirvāṇa means the cessation of all talk about it, the quiescence of phenomenal existence, and the attainment of the highest good.”The Vaibhāṣika admits that nirvāṇa is a positive entity (bhāva). Nāgārjuna says it is not bhāba, it cannot be abhāba (total cessation), bhāva and abhāva, neither, bhāva nor abhāva. There can be abhaba only when previously there is bhaba. Chandrakirti in his commentary on Madhyamika Karika gives a rekevant quotation from Arya Ratnavali20.“Nor is Nirvāṇa abhāva (non-ens). How do you entertain such an idea? Nirvana is really complete cessation of such consideration of bhāva (ens) or abhāva (non-ens) of the real.” It is beyond existence and non-existence. In this respect Chandrakirti explains that “tatasea sarvskslpana ksaryapam eva nirvāṇa”21. Moreovre,the Hinayanist thinks that nirvāṇa is the opposite of saṁsara (phenomenal). But according to Nāgārjuna said that no difference between Nirvāṇa and saṁsāra,“Nothing of phenomenal existence (saṁsāra) is different from nirvāṇa. Nothing if nirvāṇa is different from phenomenal existence.”22Again he explains, Nirvāṇasya ca yā koṭiḥ koṭiḥ saṁsaraṇasya ca| Na tayor antaraṁ kiñcit susūkṣmam api vidyate||Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,xxv20 “That which is the limit if Nirvana is also the limit of saṁsāra; there is not the slightest different between the two.”23 Ya ājavaṁjavībhāva upādāya pratītya vā| So’ pratītya anupādāya nirvāṇm upadiśyate|| Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,xxv2024 Actually, Hīnayānist considers that nirvāṇa means a veritable change of the discrete, conditioned existences (saṁskṛta dharmas) and defilements (kleśas) into unconditioned (asaṁskrta) and undefiled dharmas but Mādhyamika explain that nirvāṇa, śūnyatā, dharma, pratītyasamutpāda are identical. From what has been discussed above, it is clear that in Buddhism nirvāṇa is the emergence of prajñā or sambodhi (transcendental wisdom) and śanti (peace). It can be concluded that nirvāṇa involves a radically transformed state of consciousness, one that is free from self projections—realizing that there is no actor apart from action. According to Buddhism, one Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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can attain nirvāṇa in the present life, not only after death. Nirvāṇa is peace and highest goal, it is an experience and supreme bliss, it is beyond language and not self. Notes and References 1. 2. 3.

9. 10.

11. 12.

13.

14. 15. 16. 17.

18.

19. 20.

21. 22.

23.

24.

Dhammapada,354 Suttanipāta, 346 In Samyutta Nikāya (1069-76), Nirvāṇa means Accī yathā vātavegana khitto atthaṁ paleti, na upeti saṅkhaṁ| evam munī nāmakāyā vimutto atthaṁ paleti, na upeti saṅkhaṁ Atthaṅ-gatassa na pamāṇaṁ atthi;Yena naṁ vajju,taṁ tassa n’atthi;Sabbesu dhammesu samomūhatesu Samūhatā vādapathā pi sabbeti and Conze’s translation. Sa =with, upādhi= aggregates (nāma rūpa), sasa=remaining. The aggregates are called Upādhi because they are firmly grasped by craving and ignorance.Narada, The Buddha and His teachings. p.496 Arahat is one who has attained nibbāna. The state of an arhat, the perfect in the Buddhist sense (nibbāna) ,Pali Text Society. Dict.p.26 Abhedi kāyo nirodhi saññā vedanā sitibhavimsu sabbā. Vūpasamimsu sankhārā viññaṇaṃ atthamāgamā, Udāna.p.93 Studies of Philosophy and Religion by Dr.R.S.Misra, p. 204cf. The Central Philosophy of Buddhism by T.R.V.Murti,p. 272. Ibid J. Singh, Introduction of The Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṅa by Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṇa by Th.Stcherbatsky, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd.Delhi, p.25 Ibid p.25 Anityā vata samskārā utpāda-vyaya-dharminah | Utpadya hi nirudhyante teşām vyapaśamas sukham || Eng.Trans. J. Singh, Introduction of The Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṅa by Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṇa by Th.Stcherbatsky, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd.Delhi, p.25 Ibid,p.26 Ibid,p.26 Udāna, VIII.3 Aprahīnaṁ asamprātaṁ anucchinnaṁ aśāśvata/| Aniddhaṁ anutpannaṁ etan nirvānaṁ ūcyate// J. Singh, Introduction of The Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṅa by Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṇa by Th.Stcherbatsky, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd.Delhi, p.25 Prasannapadā by Candrakīrti.p. 2 Na cabhavo’ pi nirvanam kuta evasya bhabana| Bhavabhaparamarsa-ksayo nirvana ucyate.|| Prasannapadā,p. 229 Prasannapadā..p. 229 Na saṁsārasya nirvāṇāta kiñcid asti viśeṣaṇaṃ| Na nirvāṇasya saṁsārātt kiñcid asti viśesaṇaṃ.|| Mūlamadhyamakakārikā XXV,19 Eng Trans. J. Singh, Introduction of The Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṅa by Conception of Buddhist Nirvāṇa by Th.Stcherbatsky, Motilal Banarasidass Publishers Pvt.Ltd.Delhi, p.29 “That which when appropiatin or relative (upādāya) or dependent (pratītya vā) wonders to an from (ājavaṁjavībhāva) in its conditioned nature is declare to be Nirvana when not depending (apratīya) or not appropriating or relative (anupādāya) i.e., in its unconditioned nature

Bibliography: Dutta, Nalinaksha, : Mahayana Buddhism, Farma, KLM. Ltd. Calcutta, 1971. Murti, TRV: “The Central Philosophy of Buddhism”, Allen & Unwin, London, 1955 (1st ed). Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Mohanta , Dilip Kumar, : Madhyamakadarśaner Rūprekhā O Nāgārjunakṛta Savṛttivigrahavyāvartanī, Mahabodhi Book Agency, Kolkata -73, 2006. Verman, V.P.: Early Buddhism and its Origins, New Delhi, Munshiram Manahararlal, 1973. Hiriyanna, M,: “Outline of Indian philosophy”, George Allen and Unwin Ltd.Bombay,1973 Chinda Chandrkaew, The Ultimate Truth of Buddhism. Mahachula Buddhist University Press, B.E.25, Bangkok, p.45. T.W.Rhys Davids and J.E. Carpenter, Dighanikāya, P.T.S., Vol.I (1890), Vol.II (1903), Vol.III (1911). Rahula, Walpola., What the Buddha Taught, Gordon Fraser: Bedford 1967. Mererk, Prayoon., A Buddhist Approach to Peace. Bangkok: Amrin Printing Group Ltd, 1989 Payutto, Bhikkhu P.A., Buddhadhamma Natural Laws and Values of Life, State Uneversity of New York Press, New York. Eng.Trans.by Dilipkumar Mohanta, Understanding Mādhyamika Śūnyatā, Vishveshvaranand Vedic Reasearch Institute,Dec,2006, vol.4&5,P297 Candrakīrti’s Prasannapadā.p.142 and A.M.Padhye, The Framework of Nāgārjuna’sPhilosophy Religion, Practice and Science of Non-violence by Dr. O.P. Jaggi, Munshiram Manoharilal Publishers Pvt.Ltd.P.16 Nyanamoli, Bhikkhu,The Path of Purification, Fifth Editin, 1991, by Buddhist Publication Society All right reserved by the Publishers, reprinted by Karunaratne & Sons Ltd. Colombo,1999. Misra, R.S., Studies in Philosophy and Religion, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Varanasi, 1971.

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E-Governance Initiatives in Urban India Dr. M. Ramana Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, University College for Women, Koti, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana, E-mail:ramanaegovernance@gmail.com This Paper made emphasis on e-governance implementation in Urban Local Bodies. The egovernance in developing countries like in India is found in E-governance of Greater Hyderabad, Greater Mumbai and Delhi Municipal Corporations. Further this Paper examined the e-governance applications implemented by Municipal Corporations of India. The importance of governance in development has been accepted and recognized throughout the world. A number of studies carried out across the globe have time and again reported that poor and weak governance is the major stumbling block on socio economic development. Widespread adoption, inadequate, inefficient inequitable public services host of other problems reform failures of governance. Emphasizing on the issues of good governance, former Secretary – General Kofi Anam remarked “Good Governance is perhaps the single most importance factor in eradicating poverty and promoting development.” The cognizance of the close linkages between the good governance and development have emerged partly due to the past failures of policies and programmes and partly due to increasing search of more holistic view to ensure equitable human development. Increasingly globalization of the world economy, emerging realities at the national and state levels and urgency of adopting to the information society have changed the paradigms of governance during the past few years. Though there are many options and alternatives to improve the development and governance one looks for the easiest, cost effective and convenient methods and it is here tools of information technology governance score over others. E-governance during the past few years have contributed to the improved options for the governments in the right manner. E-Governance – Global Scenario The world leaders at the U.N. World Summit on Information Society (WSIS) held in Tunis in November 2005, while reaffirming the vision of the peaceful, prosperous and just world outlined the vision of “building the people centric and inclusive information society so as to enhance digital opportunity for all people in order to help bridge the digital divide, putting the potential information and communication technologies in the service of development and addressing new challenges of the information society.” The Minimum Development Goals The Minimum Development Goals (MDGs) have also listed access to information technologies as one of its targets which by itself is considered as an important and effective tool for attainment of all other goals. According to U.N. Global E-Government Readiness Report 2005, the United States of America is the world leader and leads the 2005 global e-government readiness rankings followed by Denmark, Sweden and United Kingdom. Among the developing countries, Singapore stands at 7th position. As far as India is concerned, it is placed at 87th rank during 2005 though its position was 86th during 2004. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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E-Governance in Developing Countries Using ICTs effectively to serve citizens online is a struggle for many governments, particularly developing countries. Government organizations face great levels of uncertainty in developing and providing e-Government services because of the complexity of the technology, deeply entrenched organizational routines, and great diversity in the acceptance of technology by individuals. E-Government requires much more than technical wizard' for developing and operating successful online services. This includes developing strategic approaches for organizing and assembling tangible resources such as computers and networks and intangible resources such as employee skill and knowledge and organizational processes. Consequently, government organizations need to address two factors in order to achieve success. This includes: having a significant population of citizens willing and able to adopt and use online services; and, developing the managerial and technical capability to implement e- Government applications to meet the needs of citizens (Prattipati 2003). Governments of developing countries face various types of constraints in building e-Government. These constraints acutely shape the disparity of the adoption levels and usage of e-Government in developed economies. First, the digital divide is a barrier. As Pippa Norris describes, "the OECD warns that affluent states at the cutting edge of technological change have reinforced their lead in the new knowledge economy but so far the benefits of the Internet have not yet trickled down far to South, Central, and Eastern Europe, let alone to the poorest areas in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin. America, and Southeast Asia" (Norris 2001 5). in fact, while studies show that 173 of 190 countries have developed e-Government sites to begin to use ICT more broadly to provide government services, there is great disparity and a persistent digital divide (West 2007). Second, governments often view technology in a deterministic fashion. In other words, many adopters of new technologies expect that the technology can solve the problems of the organization. En the case of e-Government, during the "gold-rush" of the Internet boom, many governments thought that citizens would flock to the web. â&#x20AC;&#x153;A team of e-Government researchers observed that governments are often triggered by technology-driven visions of 'good e-Government', where organizational concerns and the usefulness of their results are less important than the deployment of 'advanced' technology.â&#x20AC;? International or European benchmarks seem to corroborate a state of affairs where e-Government is not harnessed to goals of administrative modernization" (Dovifat, Brueggemeier et al. 2007 127). Third, at the same time that developing countries aspire to provide e-Government services, many countries lack sufficient levels of critical resources. When making decisions about supporting e-Government services, many government leaders are concerned about trading off using scarce resources to feed, house, nurse, employ, educate and protect its citizens with making Investments to develop Internet access, purchase computer equipment and software applications and train and develop human capital for using ICTs. Some government constituents are skeptical that investing in ICT-related Improvements to government services will actually make citizens lives better. There are many obstacles that diminish the impact of "e-Government. Each government struggles with making investments into ICTs, especially when the expected benefits may only have an indirect effect on the performance of government services. Seminal research describes this as the "productivity paradox" and observes that computerization does not automatically increase productivity. Rather, the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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expected benefits of !CTs may not be realized directly with increasing levels of investment ICTs alone, but it is an essential component of a broader system of organizational changes which does improve productivity (Brynjolfsson and Hitt 1998). With this context, the benefits of ICTs and e-Government are nearly invisible to policy makers and government leaders unless there are complimentary' transformations of public administration practices. Fourth, governments face developing resources and capabilities to build up the technological and managerial knowledge needed to successfully deploy e-Government services. This includes the development of skills and know-how to successfully perform the following activities: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Digitizing information; Performing transactions; Streamlining processes; Enhancing employee productivity; Providing access to public information; Fostering citizen participation.

The technologies and approaches for building and operating e-Government services are obtained through technology transfer initiatives between developed countries and developing countries. This creates a great problem for developing countries because knowledge and resources are needed to modify software and hardware solutions to fit the local conditions. These modifications may drive up the cost and time to implement e-Government solutions. For example, teams of programmers are needed to write new software code to customize an application. However, as the number of software features that need to be customized grow, there is an exponential increase in the number of lines of code that need to be written, tested, documented, implemented and maintained. Following are some of the national flagship egovernance institutions. 1. Aadhar: Aadhar is a unique citizen identification system introduced by the Government of India. This system provides unique identification numbers to all citizens, creation of a database of the entire citizen which is multipurpose National I.D. Card which serves as a main identity and information provider for targeting and monitoring of governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s inclusion and welfare programmes. 2. Garuda: A National Knowledge Network (NKN) Grid which serves as a common platform for academics and educational research institutions for the knowledge sharing and sharing of best practices. Currently four States, namely Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh have been initiated using National Knowledge Network. E-Governance Initiatives in Andhra Pradesh/Telangana The State Government is the national leader in e-governance initiatives in the country. Several successful e-governance initiatives have been on roll out and are recommended for replication in other states also. The Andhra Pradesh is the IT hub for a number of IT and ITES service providers, which puts the state in a strong position in infrastructure development and implementation. The notable e-governance projects are: KM-ATOM The complete Office Tool for paperless Office which provides efficient MIs for improving accountability in office environment. This connects district collectorate of the states with all Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the departments which helped in reducing red-tapism and enable the officials in doing their jobs more efficiently and effectively. e-Procurement Automated procurement producers which enables the faster and more transparent processes in the procurement. Andhra Pradesh is the first state to adopt e-procurement. Mee Seva Project A one stop citizen service centre which provides faster, easier, online and web-based Government to Citizen (G2C) services such as revenue, municipal departments, registration, police, civil supplies, school education etc., Nearly 100 G2C services are offered now. A centralized web-based integrated land information system is the highlight of this project; this facility enables the access of land records and related details to the citizen. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana State Portal The state government official web portal is the information repository for all government issues. This links to all departments and organizations websites. Also information pertaining to state/district profile, budget, welfare programmes/schemes available, forms, government orders, circulars notifications etc., is available. In this way it serves as a single window interface for all transactional government services between citizens and the businesses. Jawahar Knowledge Centres These Centres serves as the platform for government, university and industry people to share their knowledge and ideas. This facilitates the information sharing and exchange of innovative ideas regarding learning and innovations. This serves as the research centre which provides places for development and deployment of e-governance applications and other researches that benefit the society. Also provides skills training to the students for the skilled manpower. Online Multi Purpose House hold Survey (MPHS): Facilitates the services such as applications and issuance of caste certificates, birth certificates, nativity certificates etc. Online Citizen Friendly Services of Transport Department (CFST): Online applications for the issuance and renewal of driving licenses, international driving permit, vehicle fitness and permits, vehicle registration etc., With this facility, online tax remittance and grievance redressal is also provided. e-Seva E-Seva is the first major initiative in the country to employ information technology as a tool to improve services for citizens. The Andhra Pradesh Government launched the e-Seva Programme to provide integrated services to citizens of the State. The e-Seva Centre is a one-stop-shop for more than 30 government â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to - consumer (G2C) and business â&#x20AC;&#x201C; to â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Consumer (BwC) services. From payment of electricity, water and telephone bills to the issue of Birth and Death Certificates, permits and licences, receipt of Passport applications, the e-Seva Centres offer a wide range of services under one roof. Complaint Redressal system: This is an online complaint registration through internet. Also complaints could be registered through e-mail, telephone, post and by person. The registered complaint details are automatically delivered to the concerned officials via SMS. Also updation of the action taken on that complaints will be done on the web based application, so that complaint tracking and status checking is done easily. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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E-Governance in Urban Local Bodies Local bodies being the first interface between the citizen and the governments, introduction of e-governance in Municipalities will assist municipal bodies to service delivery mechanism, achieve better information management and transparency and ensure utmost citizens involvement in government. Urban local bodies are service providers and affect the daily life of each and every citizen from Birth to Death. They are cutting edge organizations with direct citizen interface. Improving the citizens living conditions is the prime objective of the municipalities and urban local bodies today. However, the process that is currently in practice at managing of the municipalities and urban local bodies do not really leverage the technological advances. Main objective of e-governance is to provide better citizen services through technologies. The urban local bodies deal with complex urban problems on daily basis, hence e-governance is one of the means in solving the problems. For providing better services to citizens, improving internal efficiency and effectiveness, the government of India formulated egovernance plan (NEGP) in 2003. A number of mission mode projects (MVP) have been defined under the NEGP. Implementation of e-governance in urban local bodies, i.e. municipalities, municipal corporations is one of the key mission mode projects taken up at national level. The national mission mode project (NMPP) for e-governance in municipalities as an effort to modernize the municipal services giving top priority to citizen services information gatherings and its dissemination. A need has been felt to:  Adopt a holistic approach to address the requirements of the citizens mainly with relations to functions in the cooperation.  To strengthen the citizen interface with the municipal corporations.  To enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of the corporation.  To provide better interface with various stakeholders involved with the other departments and service provides.  Provide for information sharing and transparency and to provide web-based services to the citizens’ efficiency of urban local bodies. Mission Mode Project for Municipalities The key objectives of the Mission Mode Project for Municipality include: 1) To provide a single window services to the citizens at any time anywhere banks; 2) Increase the productivity and efficiency of urban local bodies; 3) Provide timely and reliable management information relating to municipal administration for decision making; 4) Adopt a standard based approach to enable integration with other related applications; and 5) Develop a single and integrated view of urban local bodies, information system across all urban local bodies of the State. The project intends to cover 423 ULBs over a period of five years with a total outlay of Rs. 787 Crores starting from 2007 to 2012. During the first year, i.e. 21007-08 the project will be implemented in 35 million plus cities of the country. The urban local bodies are required to prepare detailed project reports (DPR). The cost of the mission mode project is to be shared between Central and State Government. As far as million plus cities concerned 75 per cent of the capital cost and 75 per cent of the annual cost for the first two years will be borne by the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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State Government. For rest of the Class I cities, 90 per cent of the capital cost and 90 per cent of the annual cost for the first two years will be met by the Central Government and the remaining cost has to be borne by the State Government. The project envisages implementation of various allocation modules covering the following services / management functions with the urban local bodies. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Registration and issues of birth and death certificates Payment of property tax and utility bills Management of utilities that come under ULB’s viz. Property Tax, water supply and other utilities Building plan approvals Procurement and monitoring of projects.

Further, the accessibility of central funds under the JNNURM, UIDSSMT and IHSDP has been made conditional in the sense that the State Government / ULBs are mandatorily required to implement the reform agenda within the mission period. The implementation of e-Governance in the provision of urban services by using GIS and MIS happens to be one of the mandatory reforms of the Agenda in order to make the governance simple, transparent, accountable and responsive. It is also envisaged that this mission mode projects for municipalities would provide a major flip to the urban reform agenda under the JNNURM and other associated schemes. Books  B. Srinivas Raj E-Governance Techniques Indian and Global experiences, New Century Publication, New Delhi, 2008.  D.N. Gupta, E-Governance a Comprehensive Framework, New Century Publications, New Delhi, 2008.  Dr. Joshua O.Milluwi, Mrss Hina Rashid, E-Governance Democracy and Administration Strategy, Mangalam Publication, New Delhi, India, 2013.  Gupta M.P., Promise of E-governance Operational Challenges, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, 2004.  Gupta Piyush, Bagga R.K. (2008), “Compendium of e-governance: initiatives in India”, University Evers (India) Private Limited, Hyderabad, India.  “A window view on prospects of ERP implementation in Municipal Corporation of Delhi” by Dr. Sanjay Kumar Gupta, Vilender Kumar, Dr. Susheel Chabra, IJETAE, Volume – 2, Issuing, September, 2012.  “Defining Pace of Urban Development; E-governance in Local Bodies and Public Works Departments (emphasis on Indian Scenario) by Omkar Parishwad and Vijay Gupta, Intarnational Journal of Applied Engineering Research, ISSN 0973-4562, Volume, November 1 (2014) pp.71-80.

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Concept of Social Justice in the Political Philosophy Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: A Brief Study Dr. P. Ravi Department of History, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana “Ambedkar would be remembered above a as symbol of the revolt against all the oppressive features of Hindu society. But he will be remembered also for the great interest he took and the trouble he took over the question of Hindu law reform. I am happy that he saw that reform in a very large measure carried out, perhaps not in the form of that monumental to me that he had himself drafted, but in separate bits”. --------------Jawaharlal Nehru, 1956

Introduction The political philosophy of Ambedkar may help in renegotiating the crisis of western political theory in particular and leading the struggles of the masses in general. One can see Ambedkar’s association with the grand political streams such as liberal, radical or conservative through his writings. At the same time he differs himself with these three dominant political traditions. Ambedkar’s philosophy is essentially ethical and religious. For him, social precedes the political. Social morality is the central to his political philosophy. He is neither fierce individualist nor conservative communitarian. His conception of democracy internalizes the principles of equality, liberty, and fraternity in its true spirit. Though there are many attempts but one may find difficulty in locating him in dominant political traditions. Often this may leads to misunderstanding of the essence of Ambedkar. Ambedkar’s political thought demands new language to understand the complexity of his thought. He considers democracy essentially as a form of society of a more associated living and a social conscience is the only safe guard of all rights. The roots of democracy are to be searched in social relationships, in terms of associated life among a society. For him, social relationships are the key to democracy. Ambedkar is a social democrat in spirit and practice. His special contribution to political thought lies in his linking up liberty, equality and fraternity to the concept of social democracy, which in turn, he relates to democracy as form of government. He further reminds the limitations of social democracy in everyday functioning. As he categorically stated while addressing the constituent assembly (November 25, 1949), ‘Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy’ which means, a way of life which recognize liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of life.’ In this sense he defined democracy as a form and method of government whereby revolutionary changes in the economic and social life of people are brought about without bloodshed. In most of the speeches and writings of Ambedkar, the central theme is social reformism. He often debated and confronted on the issue of precedence of social over political issues. Politics have to be necessarily connected to the social issue. The very foundations of democracy lie in associated living in society. On the issue of giving primacy to social over political, he differs with congress and socialists. This is well reflected in all his writings in general and his writings ‘Annihilation of caste’ and ‘what congress and Gandhi have done to untouchables’ in particular. To Ambedkar, the operationalisation of the idea of social justice could be carried on by putting in place a set of constitutional provisions in the nation of both protective and promotional measures. His long standing demand for an Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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autonomous political representation on the disadvantaged groups in the political institutions of decision making in the country was to be the major more towards securing social justice. For this, he attempted to provide for en elaborate scheme of definite political safeguards for depressed classes in the contribution of India. (Rodrigue 2004: 369-81). In contemporary times, once ‘cast’ got theoretically recognized and established as the Indian social reality, the established political and social theories got new meanings. Ambedkar as a thinker got prominence because of his scholarly conceptualization of the institution of caste and its functioning in Indian society. He interpreted the Indian social world in order to change the lives of the Dalit masses who are the victims of caste system. The situation demands proper assessment of Ambedkar’s political philosophy in relation to other prominent political streams of the time. Ambedkar is a real philosopher in the Marxian sense. He has interpreted the Indian social reality in order to change it. The Concept of Social Justice Plato defined social justice as, “the principle of a society consisting of different types of men.., who have combined the impulse of their need for one another and their concentration on their combination in one society and their concentration on their separate functions, have made a whole which is perfect because it is the product of image of the whole of the human mind (Republic 368d quoted in Mohapatra 1999)”. In modern times the term social justice was first used in 1840 by a Sicilian priest, Luigi Taparelli d’Azeglio. However, Antonio Rasmini Serbasti gave the term prominence in his work, La constitutione Civile Secodo La Giurtizia Sociale in the year 1848 (Noval 2000: 11 quoted in Yadav:2006). Further, in a series of articles beginning with “Justice as Fairness” John Rawls propounded a contractualist theory of Justice as it applies to institutions and practices. It is based on the notions of fairness and reciprocity. Rawls believed that his theory of justice is an improvement over utilitarian accounts of justice as maximum welfare. John Rawls developed the following principles of justice: a) Each person is to have an equal right to most extensive basic liberty compatible with similar liberty for others. b) Social and economic inequities are arbitrary unless they are reasonably expected to be to the advantage of the representative man in each income class. c) Inequalities are to attach to positions and offices equally open to all (Choptiany 1973:146). Similarly taking a leaf from John Rawl’s theory of social justice, Ande Beteile (2005: 417), argues that, “the fundamental issue in distributive justice is equality a more equal or at least a less unequal distribution of the benefits and of social co-operation”. He opines that, “In that sense distributive justice to go beyond equality in the purely formal sense: equality before the law; seeks to go beyond equality in the purely formal sense: equality before the law, the equal protection of the laws, or even formal equality of opportunity. Its central concern is, in the language of John Rawl ‘to address the bias of contingencies in the direction of equality’... Any attempt to promote distributive justice must begin with a consideration of the existing inequalities in society. .. it is essential to keep in sight both inequalities between Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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individual and disparities. Disparities between groups have been historically go great significance in Indian society”. Plato and Rawl’s concept of social justice would mean giving every man his due. The basic aim of social justice is to remove the imbalances in the social, political and economic life of the people to create a just society. In terms of culture-specificity: the term social justice has a different meaning in Indian society. It means dispensing justice to those to whom it has been systematically denied in the past because of an established social structure. Inferring Meaning of Social Justice from Ambedkar’s Writings It is a fact that Babasaheb Dr. Ambedkar did not propound any specific definition or theory of “Social Justice” per se. His thoughts are eloquently portrayed in his writings and speeches published posthumously. On the basis of these we can easily argue that Ambedkar has mentioned multiple principles for the establishment of an open and just social order in general and Indian society in particular. Therefore with the help of these elements we can carve out a theory of social justice, what can then be then referred as Ambedkar’s theory of Social Justice. We can extract five basic principles, from writings arid speeches of Ambedkar, through which justice can be dispensed in the society. These are:  Establishing society where individual becomes the means of all social purposes  Establishment of society based on equality, liberty and fraternity  Establishing democracy- political, economic and social.  Establishing democracy through constitutional measures and  Establishing democracy by breaking monopoly of upper strata on political power Going by the principles of Ambedkar’s theory of social justice, Ambedkar was of the opinion that Social Justice can be dispensed in a free social order in which an individual is end in itself. Similarly, the terms of associated life between members of society must be regarded by consideration founded on liberty, equality arid fraternity. In a way these principles of social justice are similar to the principles of social justice as mentioned in Rawl’s theory. Let us look these principles in operation. Arguing a case for open social order in his writings Ambedkar emphasized that generally there are two fundamental and essentials of a free social order. According to him, “The first is that th2jnjvidual is an end himself and that the aim and object of society is the growth of the individual and the development of his personality. Society is not above the individual and if the individual has to subordinate himself to society, it is because such subordination is for his betterment and only to the extent necessary”(Ambedkar 1987:95). It is with this aim he had rejected village as a unit of governance and adopted the individual as its unit. He vehemently criticized the part played by village communities in the history and congratulated the Drafting committee for accepting individual as the unit of governance (Ambedkar 1994:61-62). Ambedkar had argued for individual as end itself as he was fully aware of the fact that, “The Hindu social order does not recognize the individual as a center of social purpose... For the Hindu social order is based principally on class or Varna and not on individuals... (Ambedkar 1987:99). Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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According to him, “ideal would be a society based on Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. What objection can there be to fraternity? I cannot imagine any. An ideal society should be mobile, should be full of channels for conveying a change taking place in one part to another part. In an ideal society there should be many interests consciously communicated and shared. There should be varied and free points and contacts with other modes and associations. In other word there must be social endosmosis. This is fraternity, which is only another name for democracy. Democracy is not merely a form of government. It is primary mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience. It is essentially an attitude of respect and reverence towards followers. Few object to liberty in the sense of a right to free movement, in the and a right to property, tools and materials as being necessary for earning a living to keep the body in due state of health. Why not allow liberty to benefit by an effective and complete use of a person’s power? However, the problem is that people who support liberty in the sense of right to life, limb and property would not readily consent to liberty if it involves the liberty to choose one’s profession. Ambedkar was equipped with the teachings of Phooley. He put before him the ideal of a society which was based on the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. His education in England and U.S.A. and his broad social outlook showed him the way to free his community from the slavery of the caste Hindus. He had to fight Brahmanism and for that he had to wage social battles against caste Hindus. After India’s political independence for dispensing social justice in the wake of emerging democracy in a hierarchically arranged society, Ambedkar discussed the operationalization of principles of equality, liberty, and fraternity, which were considered to be cardinal principles of any democracy. He argued, “We must... not... be content with mere political democracy. We must make sure our political democracy, a social democracy as well” (Ambedkar 1994: 1216). Ambedkar went on to define social democracy as well. In his own words, “What does social democracy mean? It means a way of life which recognizes liberty, equality and fraternity as the principles of life. These principles of liberty, equality and fraternity are not to be treated as separate items of trinity” (Ambedkar 1994:1216). Another significant contribution of Ambedkar in the process of establishment of social democracy is his explanation of nature of three cardinal principles of democracy i.e. liberty, quality, and fraternity. He opined, “They form a union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one from the other is to defeat the very purpose of democracy. Liberty cannot be divorced from equality, equality cannot be divorced liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from fraternity. (Ambedkar 1994: 1216). Finally he cautioned the Indians how to eradicate the conditions of persisting inequality and emerging equality with the dispensation of social justice. In his own words, “On the 26th of January 1950, we are going to enter into a life of contradictions. In politics we will have equality and in social economic life we will have inequality. In Politics we will be recognizing the principle of one man one vote and one vote one value. In our social and economic life, we shall, by reason of our social and economic structure, continue to live this life of contradiction? How long shell we continue to live this life of contradictions? If we continue to deny it for long, we will do so only by putting our political democracy in peril. We must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible moment or else those who suffer from inequality will blow up the structure of political democracy, which.. .“The second thing we are wanting in is recognition of the principle of fraternity. What does fraternity mean? Fraternity means a sense of common brotherhood of Indians-If Indians being one people. It is Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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the principle, which gives unity and solidarity to social life, It is difficult thing to achieve” (Ambedkar 1994:1216-17). Although initially Ambedkar was skeptical of delivery of justice through government machinery but later on he preferred the same by having the share of Dalits in it. Going by the then existing Hindu social order Expressing his anguish on the failure of delivery of justice Ambedkar had opined “It might have been brought that the principle of equal justice would strike a death blow to the established order. As a matter of fact, far from suffering any damage the established order has continued to operate in spite of it. It might be asked why the principle of equal justice has failed to have its effect. The answer to this is simple. To enunciate the principle of justice is one thing. To make it effective is another thing. Whether the principle of equal justice is effective or not must necessarily depend upon the nature and character of the civil services who must be left to administer the principle. If the civil services is by reason of its class bias is the friend of the established order and the enemy of the new order, the new order can never come into being. That a civil service in tune with the new order was essential for the success of the new order was recognized by Karl Marx in 1871 in the formation of Paris commune and adopted by Lenin in the constitution of Soviet communism. Fortunately, the British Government never cared about the personnel of the Civil Services. Indeed it opened the gates of the administration to those classes who believed in the old established order of the Hindus in which the principle of equality had no place. As a result of this fact, India has been ruled by the British but administered by the Hindus” (Ambedkar 1989: 104). However, as the time passed by Ambedkar gradually became aware that the Social Justice can be delivered through the government machinery and through constitutional means and therefore Dalits have to be part of it. In this context he wrote, “The power to administer law is not less important than the power to make laws. And the spirit of the legislators may easily be violated if not nullified by the machinery of the administrators this is not the only reason why the depressed classes should show special concern for securing power of control over administration. Often times under pressure of work or under difficulties of circumstances one has to leave good deal of discretionary power in the hands of the heads of the administrative departments. The welfare of the people must greatly depend on how impartially this discretionary power is exercised in a country like India where the public service is exclusively manned by people of one community; there is a great danger of this vast discretionary power being used for the personal aggrandizement of a class. The best antidote against it is to insist on a proper admixture of caste and creeds including the depressed classes and there will be no difficulty in guaranteeing this safeguard to us by a clause in the Constitution. Such protection you could have dispensed with if there was any chance of the depressed classes being represented in the future cabinets of the country. But there is not the remotest chance of this in view of the fact that the depressed classes will always remain in minority. This makes it all the more necessary why you should insist upon such a guarantee” (Ambedkar, 1989:265). Moreover Ambedkar had cautioned people that, “If we wish do maintain democracy not merely in form, but also in fact….we must do is to hold fast to constitutional methods of achieving our social and economic objectives. It means we must abandon the bloody methods of revolution. It means that we must abandon the method of civil disobedience, noncooperation and Satyagraha. When there was no way left for constitutional method for Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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achieving economic and social objectives, there was a great deal of justification for unconstitutional methods. But where constitutional methods are open, there can be no justification for these unconstitutional methods. These methods are nothing but anarchy and the sooner they are abandoned, the better for usâ&#x20AC;? (Ambedkar 1994:1215). He was also for the freedom of the individual as well. Furthermore, even for the healthy future of the emerging Indian democracy he wanted to strengthened social and economic equality along with political one. According to Ambedkar one of the way to deliver social justice to the individual was breaking the monopoly of the upper strata. Ambedkar in this regard opined, â&#x20AC;&#x153;.. .there can be no gainsaying that political power in this country has too long been the monopoly of a few. This monopoly has not merely deprived them of their chance of betterment; it has sapped them of what may be called the significance of life. These down-trodden classes are tired of being governed. They are impatient to govern themselves. This urge of self-realization in the down-trodden classes must not be allowed into a class struggle or class war. It would lead to a division of the House. That would a day of disaster. This can only be done by the establishment of equality and fraternity in all sphere of life. People are fast changing.. .They are getting tired of government by the people. They are prepared to have Government for the people... If (Ambedkar 1994: 1218). Political thought of Dr. B. R. Ambedkar Ambedkarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s thought, as reflected in his writings and speeches has great importance in tracing the history and growth of social thought in India. It is necessary to understand the philosophy of Ambedkar which is the theoretical foundation for the Dalit movement. The core of political thinking of Ambedkar is contained in of his statement the rights are protected not by law but by social and moral conscience of society, and a democratic form of government presupposes a democratic form of society. He was much influenced by teachings of Indian social reformers Buddha, Kabir and Jyothiba Phooley. While in America, he was impressed by two important things. The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the U.S.A. gave freedom to the Negroes. In India, the untouchables had no freedom. Secondly, he was impressed by the life of Booker T. Washington who died in 1915. The latter was a great social reformer and educator of the Negro race in America. Booker T. Washington, the Founder and President of the Tuskegee Institute, disseminated education among the Negroes and broke the shackles of bondage which had crushed them for centuries. The parliamentary democracy of England was copied by many countries. Indian leaders who were fighting for the liberation of the country had before their minds the dreams of parliamentary the country had before their minds the dreams of parliamentary government in India. He visualized that this western system alone would break the shackles of untouchables in India. Ambedkar is influenced by all the major political traditions of his times. His political thought has emerged from the three grand traditions of political thought, i.e. liberal, conservative and radical. The unique feature about him is that he has transcended all these traditions. He was influenced by the ideas of John Dewey the pragmatic American and the teacher of him. The Fabian Edwin R. A. Seligman had considerable impact on his thought. He often quoted Edmund Burke.

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Hence Ambedkar’s theory of social justice becomes akin to Plato and John Rawls’s theory of social justice. Further, with the help of Beteille’s analysis of distributive justice which includes distribution of benefits equally to every member of society, equality before law, equal protection of laws and equality of opportunity reflect upon the other elements of Ambedkar’s theory of social justice. In this context we can observe that Ambedkar had already enshrined these values in the Constitution of India. The value of equality in the preamble of the Indian Constitution is not only a slogan. Rather it has been substantiated with equality of opportunity (Article 16) and equality of condition that is reservation (Articles 330, 332, 335 and 46). This was done specifically because he might have thought that in a hierarchical society, like India, equality of opportunity may in turn produce inequality and subordination. Conclusion In fact Ambedkar has always been for establishing a society based on the principles of liberty, fraternity, and equality. This has to be for every individual and that social justice can be delivered to the members of the society only if the society is based equality, liberty and fraternity. Ambedkar was sure that legal measures would enable the depressed classes to conceptualize. It became clear to him that constitutional safeguards and not the laws of Manu would ultimately lead depressed classes to a free life. He provided in the Constitution special safeguards for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other downtrodden communities. Ambedkar regarded three great men as his preceptors. The first was Kabir, the second was Jyotiba Phooley and third was the Buddha. Kabir took him to the Bhakti (devotion) culture, Phooley inspired him to strive for anti-Brahmanism and amelioration of the masses, their education and economic uplift; and the Buddha gave him mental and metaphysical satisfaction and showed the way leading to the emancipation of the untouchables. Before he entered Indian politics he was fully equipped with the western thoughts of democracy, equality, liberty and fraternity. He preached, by his own example, that ‘worth’ and not ‘birth’ shapes the life of an individual in any country. Human purity lies in Ambedkar’s message, “Glory to those who would keep on their struggle for the liberation of the enslaved in spite of heavy odds, carping humiliations, storms and dangers till the down-trodden secure their human rights” He achieved his life mission following social reform approach and remained one of prime architects of Modern India. References and Bibliography 1. 1982, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writing and Speeches Vol.2., Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai. 2. 1987, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writing and Speeches Vol.3., Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai. 3. 1988 Co-operative traditions among the Malayali: A study in continuity and change, Tribal Research Centre, M. Palada (Ooty). 4. 1992, “Ambedkar and Social Justice”, Vol-I, Director Publication Division, Ministry of Information Broadcast Government of India. 5. Ambedkar, B. R, 19796. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writing and Speeches Vol.1., Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai. 6. Balawant, Damodar, 1989, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and revolutionary thoughts, Published by K. Shanta, Bangalore.

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7. Beteille, Andre, 1981, The Backward Classes and the New Social Order, Oxford University, Press, Bombay. 8. Bidyat Chakrabarty, Rajendra Kumar Pandey, 2009, Modern Indian Political Thought Text and Context, Sage Publication Pvt., Ltd., New Delhi. 9. Chanchreek, K.L., 1990, Dr. B.R. Arnbedkar, Gian Publishing House, New Delhi. 10. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, 1990, Life and Mission, Dharmajay Keer, Prakashan House, Bombay. 11. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writing and Speeches Vol.3., Education Department, Government of Maharashtra, Mumbai. 12. Ghurye, G.S. 1979, Caste and race in India, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. 13. Keer, Dhananjay 1962 Dr. Ambedkar, Life and Mission, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. 14. Lynch, M. Owen, 1969, The Politics of Untouchability, National, Delhi. 15. M. Gore: The Social Context of an ideology: Ambedkarâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Political and Social Thought, 1994, New Delhi. Sage Publication. 16. Singh, Paramanand, 1982, Equality, reservation and discrimination in India, Deep and Deep Publishers, New Delhi. 17. Zelliot, Eleanor, 1966, Buddhism and Politics in Maharashtra, in Religion and Politics in South Asia, Princeton.

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Keya Ghatak Associate Professor in English & Teacher-in-Charge of Berhampore Girls’ College, Berhampur, District – Murshidabad, E-mail: kghatakbgc@gmail.com ABSTRACT Among different types of realism , I want to mean Literary realism which is a literary movement stressing the portrayal of contemporary life and society as it exists or existed. The term is also loosely used as synonymous with verisimilitude, that is the appearance of truth or actuality in literature. . Realism not only refers to a very accurate rendering of the concrete details of the actual world around us, but also to an accurate picture of man’s inner world of emotions and mental processes. The devices which create this impression of truth by producing the illusion of reality may collectively be called realism. Literature is an art and is an artistic representation of life. Realism is an artistic creed which holds that the purpose of art is to depict life with complete and objective honesty . The realist movement began in the mid -19th century as a reaction to Romanticism and History, Painting in favour of deceptions of real life. Literary realism in contrast to idealism, attempts to represent familiar things as they are. In America realism had started from 1860. From the late 19th century to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social and cultural change. In France, realism meant impersonal and dispassionate study of man with scientific objectivity. Russian realistic literature flourished in the second half of the 19th century. There is another type of realism known as psychological realism.

Key Words: Realism, Literary, Literature, Reality, Realistic, Actuality, Life The word ‘realism’ may refer to different types of realism like Ethnographic realism, Legal realism, Literary realism, Philosophical realism, realistic art movement, realism (arts), realism (international relations) and Vienna School of Fantastic realism. Among different types of realism mentioned above, I want to mean Literary realism which is a literary movement stressing the portrayal of contemporary life and society as it exists or existed. According to Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, realism is “a mode of writing that gives the impression of recording or ‘reflecting’ faithfully an actual way of life”. Modern criticism points out that Realism “ is not a direct or simple reproduction of reality”. In literature, realism “is the portrayal of life with fidelity. It is thus not concerned with idealization, with rendering things as beautiful when they are not , or in any way presenting them in any guise as they are not ; nor, as a rule, is realism concerned with presenting the supranormal or transcendental , though , of course , the writings of Richard Rolle of Hampole, for example, or the mystical poems of St. John of the Cross, are realistic enough if we believe in God and the spiritual order.” William Dean Howells, one of the most vigorous advocates of realism in literature, has defined the term as “the truthful treatment of material.” The term is also loosely used as synonymous with verisimilitude, that is the appearance of truth or actuality in literature. Realism, therefore, not only refers to a very accurate rendering of the concrete details of the actual world around us, but also to an accurate picture of man’s inner world of emotions and mental processes. The devices which create this impression of truth by producing the illusion of reality may Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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collectively be called realism. The realist movement began in the mid -19th century as a reaction to Romanticism and History, Painting in favour of deceptions of real life. According to Jules – Francais Champfleury, the first theorist of realism, realism as a movement in literature is a post – 1848 event which aims to reproduce “ objective reality” and to focus on displaying everyday activities and life, primarily among the middle or lower class of society. Literary realism is part of the realistic art movement beginning with mid nineteen century French literature in the hand of Stendhal, and Russian literature in the hand of Alexander Pushkin and extending to the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Literary Critic Ian Watt points out that realism has originated in United Kingdom to the early 18th – century novel. In The Rise of the Novel, he states about the origin of modern realism. According to him, it “begins from the position that truth can be discovered by the individual through senses” and “it has its origins in Descartes and Locke, and received its first full formulation by Thomas Reid in the middle of the eighteen century.” Literature is an art and is an artistic representation of life. Realism is an artistic creed which holds that the purpose of art is to depict life with complete and objective honesty to show things “as they really are.” Literature deals with the life of man and his destinies of earth and expresses the thoughts, feelings, emotions and attitudes towards life, which are permanent and universal. According to De Quincey literature has two-fold functions. It imparts knowledge and provides power to its readers. The literature of knowledge teaches them and the literature of power moves them. He attributes primary importance to the literature of power which exercises a profound influence upon man’s feelings and emotions. Milton’s Paradise Lost awakens men’s latent capacity of sympathy and makes them feel ascending upon a higher level above the earth. Literature refreshes and invigorates the spirit. It emancipates the mind from its limitations, arouses it to a consciousness of the dynamic urge of life and widens its range so that it may not be encased within a limited sphere, but may feel a powerful sympathy with universal man. Literature springs from life and is intimately connected with it. Its address is to men and women of the world. The writer comes into close grip with the reality of life and what he sees or experience in life is transmuted into work of art by imagination, feeling and beautiful language. The world of imagination that literature conjures up people’s vision must have solid foundation on the actual life lived by men and women of the world. This gives an authentic truth about life to the readers who can garner much knowledge and experience about the factual truths of life. Literature helps people to discover the facts of life for it enshrines those aspects of life which are considered by the creative artist to be of enduring interest to men. Realism is opposed to romanticism which is the expression of sharpened sensibility and heightened imaginative feelings and which bedrock consists of emotion and imagination. Realism maintains that literature is an impersonal photographic representation of life, while romantics hold that literature is an imaginative recreation of life. D.H. Lawrence has written: “Reality is like a float that rides All efforts of the irritated mind Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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To frame its definition: or a fish; That swallows up all other forms of life And then drinks off the sea in which it swims.” Literary realism in contrast to idealism, attempts to represent familiar things as they are. The realists want to depict everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of using a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation. They seek to avoid idealism and romantic transfiguration of their subjects. The realists may exaggerate or accentuate features in the objects or suppress others, deepen the shade or fade the light that actually in nature, in order to produce a better impression but they must not allow the imaginative recreation of life. The literary artist sees life around him, and he reveals to us the significant facts of that life. He thinks that the aim of the artist is to create something which conveys a correct impression of reality. He thus enlarges the boundaries of reality for us. The actual conditions of life around him impacts on his creative imagination. Realism is opposed idealism which is the beauty of great literature. Literature widens people’s experience of life by revealing those aspects which are commonly hidden from the view. It enables people to discover life and understand it fully. It depicts life with photographic fidelity. It sheds light upon social reality. In America realism had started from 1860. From the late 19th century to the early 20th centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial, economic, social and cultural change. A continuous wave of European immigration and the rising potential for international trade brought immense glory and prosperity to America. Through art and artistic expression, American Realism attempted to portray the exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the figurative American landscape and the life of ordinary Americans at home. The Romantic idealism of American writing before 1861 gave way to a realistic perspective on what America had become under the pressure of war and expansion as well as the acceleration of technological, economic and social change. Those who lived through the Civil War found it increasingly hard to imagine pre war realities. Harvard Professor George Ticker observed in 1868 that the Civil War had opened a ”great gulf between what happened before in our Century and what has happened since, or what is likely to happen hereafter. It does not seem to me as if I were living in the country in which I was born.” Early 19th – century American writers tended to be flowery, sentimental, or ostentatious- partially because they were still trying to prove that they could write as elegantly as the English. In France, realism meant impersonal and dispassionate study of man with scientific objectivity. It meant objectively the impartiality in the presentation of the facts of life and particularly the passions and impulses of human hearts. The Realist movement in art began from about 1840. It conveyed a truthful and objective vision of contemporary life. Realism in France democratized art by depicting modern subjects drawn from the everyday lives of the working class. According to Dictionary of Literary Terms & Literary Theory, “The long – term effects of what the French writers achieved are difficult to assess. In recent years attempts at more acute realism have quite often led to the kind of excesses to which Zola himself proved vulnerable. ..” Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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Russian realistic literature flourished in the second half of the 19th century. The writers tried their level best to approach the social problem of their country realistically. The general characteristic of Russian realism was to include the urge to explore the human condition in a spirit of serious enquiry. Russian Realism is also known as socialist realism. There is another type of realism known as psychological realism. It represents an enlargement of technical procedures. Its most important feature is exploitation of the element of incoherence in our conscious process. In this process, an electrical notation copes with time’s swift spinning. Times, places, moods, persons are more or less interchangeable. Past is mixed up with the present, and retrospect intrudes upon prospect. According to Dictionary of Literary Terms & Literary Theory, “ Realism occurs in another important context, namely psychological realism. This denotes fidelity to the truth in depicting the inner workings of the mind, the analysis of thought and feeling, the presentation of the nature of personality and character.” Literature reflects the tendencies of the age in which it is produced. There is a great literary artist who becomes the mouth piece of the age and gives an expression to its hopes and aspirations, its fads and fetishes, its fears and doubts, its prosperity and its achievements in his works. As a technique, realism may logically deal with any subject –matter, but it has chiefly been concerned with the common places of everyday life and the middle and lower social classes. References  Cuddon, J.A. Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory (Penguin Reference), England: Clays Ltd., 1976.  Baldick, Chris. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.  Peck, John and Coyle, Martin. Literary Terms and Criticism, London: MACMILLAN PRESS LTD, 1984.  Davies, M. W., The Bloomsbury Guide to English Literature, New York: Prentice Hall, 1990.  Brut, S.D. The Chronology of American Literature, New York: HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY, 2004.

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Present Scenario of Teacher Education Tapasi Biswas Part- time Lecturer, Dept. of Bengali, Shishuram Das College, South 24 Parganas, West Bengal, India. ABSTRACT This article attempts to examine the present scenario of teacher education and quality of teachers. India has one of the largest systems of teacher education in the world. Besides the university departments of education and their affiliated colleges, government and government aided institutions; private and self – financing colleges and open universities are also engaged in teacher education. Though most teacher education programmes are nearly identical yet their standard varies across institutions and universities. Various issues of teacher education namely overgrowing establishment, rare humane and professional teachers, poor integration of skills, alienated and in compatible modes of teacher education, stake holders’ non – alignment, inadequate technology infusion, , poor research scenario , invalid recognition and accreditation and no teacher education policy have been dwelt on in this paper. In certain areas , the supply of teachers far exceeds the demand while in others there are acute shortages as qualified teachers which results in the appointment of under – qualified and unqualified persons. The paper concludes that evidently the quality of education is a direct consequence and outcome of the quality of teachers and teacher education system.

INTRODUCTION This article attempts to examine the present scenario of teacher education and quality of teachers. India has one of the largest systems of teacher education in the world. Besides the university departments of education and their affiliated colleges, government and government aided institutions; private and self – financing colleges and open universities are also engaged in teacher education. Though most teacher education programmes are nearly identical yet their standard varies across institutions and universities. Various issues of teacher education namely institutional inertia, brand inequity, quality crisis, overgrowing establishment, rare humane and professional teachers, poor integration of skills, alienated and in compatible modes of teacher education, little contribution to higher education, domain pedagogy mismatches, identity crisis, rare innovations, stake holders’ non – alignment, inadequate technology infusion, little choice base, poor research scenario , vision and vision mismatches, non- scientific manpower planning, illusive laboratories , over activism of distance / open universities, invalid recognition and accreditation and no teacher education policy have been dwelt on in this paper. Education of teachers not only facilitates improvement of school education by preparing competent, committed and professionally well qualified teachers who can meet the demand of the system, but also functions as a bridge between schooling and higher education. In certain areas , the supply of teachers far exceeds the demand while in others there are acute shortages as qualified teachers which results in the appointment of under – qualified and unqualified persons. The role of teacher education as a process of nation building is universally recognized. But teacher education in India, because of its history and also due to various factors beyond its control, has by and large been confined to school education only. The paper concludes that evidently the quality of education is a direct consequence and outcome of the quality of teachers and teacher education system. Teacher Education New Curriculum Framework was designed and released during March 2010. The Study of Demand & supply of trained teachers in States and Union Territories at primary, Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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upper primary, and secondary levels was completed by the Council in 2010 and was published in 30 volumes. The recognition of sizable number of below standard Teacher Education institutions was withdrawn. A large number of Teacher Education institutions have shifted to their own premises. Bridge courses have been introduced to strengthen Teacher Education, where found wanting. Online applications and self-disclosure drives were introduced. Persons of integrity and competence were included in the Visiting Team Panels. A manual has been designed on the structure & functioning of the labs. A volume has been published by the NCTE (2009), namely, Teacher Education, which contains Reflections towards Policy Formulation. Teacher Education has been struggling to strengthen its identity. Struggle does not mean degeneration of values and degeneration of institutions. It is true that after persistent struggle there is evident improvement, but, still there is no end to perfection. Every establishment has noise. There are issues and resolves, problems and solutions, puzzles and pathways. Reflections on some of the issues concerning Teacher Education in India are presented in this research paper. INSTITUTIONAL INERTIA- Due to divergence of State, Society, Judiciary and Education there is institutional inertia. Education has its own identity. No body should try to superimpose and dictate education. Earlier the Society was governing the Society, then the State started governing the Society, now the Economy is overarching, both the State & Society. The private & corporate sector has more of commercial motive. Education has been largely commercialized. Return on investment is being estimated in terms of material profit rather than in terms of all round development. BRAND INEQUITY-There is public private dichotomy in teacher education. There is a pathetic indifference in public sector institutions and rampant commercialization in private sector. The teacher education degrees conferred by the various universities and institutions are non-comparable. There is evident variation at all levels of input, process and output. The study conducted by Madhavi (2009) reveals that research aptitude, educational management aptitude, adjustment capacity and teacher education disciplinary profile have been found to be significant predictors of teacher education proficiency in the western region of India. Research aptitude, adjustment capacity and teacher education disciplinary profile have been found to be predicting in a positive and significant manner, whereas, educational management aptitude has impacted in a negative manner. Living competencies and technopedagogic competencies have not been found to be significant predictors. There is a need to find out how teacher education has failed to correlate significantly with these variables. Also, there is a need to find out how the educational management aptitude has been found to be contributing inversely. None of the six variables have been found to be significant predictor of teacher education proficiency in the northern, eastern and the southern regions of India. Enrolment in teacher education programmes varies from region to region. There are some areas in India where the enrolment in Teacher Education is nearly full, but, the physical presence in the face to face mode is nearly nil. These are exclusively commercial centres than educational. There should be immediate ban on these institutions, whether, these institutions are under the purview of the NCTE or not. There are well specified teacher education curricula by the NCTE. Even then in significant number of institutions there is under coverage. The quality of product and placement criteria for teacher education programmes varies from university to university. There is evident disregard with respect to the NCTE Norms and Regulations. The question is whether to revise the norms or the parameters or both. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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QUALITY CRISIS- There are problems of quality perception, quality scaling and quality differentiation in Teacher Education. There is a significant variance between expected and actual quality. Alas, this gap is widening. This is exemplified by the successive entrance tests for higher level, be it Graduate, Post-Graduate or Doctoral Level. There has to be adequate focus on all the systemic parameters- input, process and output. The degeneration of quality of Teacher Education can be attributed more to the private sector. Unless the teacher education norms are observed sincerely by the society, no body can help. OVERGROWING ESTABLISHMENT- Establishment has overgrown enrolment in most of the teacher education programmes. But, at the same time there is uneven distribution of the teacher education institutions. Teacher education regulations, norms and standards though latest visited during 2009, have further scope for perfection. There is a need to have demand and supply estimates. Blanket “NO” and even blanket “YES” can be grossly harmful in the public interest. The States need to justify, substantially, case-wise their stand for objection or no objection with due respect to the establishment of teacher education institutions. There is a need to find out teacher education institutions required countrywide, program-wise and statewise, at present, and in future. Surveys need to be conducted to find out the present status and requirement. These projections ought to be in tune with the growth of school education. Also, futurological studies need to be conducted to make forecasts of teacher education. RARE HUMANE & PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS- Teacher Education for preparing humane & professional teachers needs to be wholistic. Along with content & methodology there is a need to integrate emotional competencies, such as, self-awareness and selfmanagement, social sensitivity and social management. There is a need to integrate life skills, such as, self-awareness, empathy, interpersonal relationship, effective communication, critical thinking, creative thinking, decision making, problem solving, and coping up with emotions and stress. There is a need to integrate info-savvy skills, such as, asking, accessing, analysing, applying and assessing. There is a need to integrate techno-pedagogic skills, such as, media-message compatibility, media designing, integration of message media and modes, realizing proximity of message forms, media language proficiency, media choice, message authenticity and media credibility, media automation, media integration and media acculturation. There is a need to integrate human development climate through trust, risk taking, openness, reward, responsibilities, top support, feedback, team spirit and collaboration. There is a need to integrate spiritual intelligence dimensions, such as, spirituality, soul or inner being, self awareness, quest for life values, convention, commitment and character, happiness and distress, brotherhood, equality of caste, creed, colour and gender, inter-personal relations, acceptance and empathy, love and compassion, flexibility, leadership, life & death. The teacher education programmes need to integrate in numerous skills & competencies. Environmental Education courses run by teacher education institutions have been found to enhance environmental awareness, but not developed environmental ethics. Political Science education programs have been found to multiply the number of professional politicians and not humanistic statesmen. Law Education is not ensuring lawfulness. Even after Science Education the actions are not scientific. The convocations without invocation are useless and painful. Merit is destroyed due to mismatches between Teacher Educators and Teacher Trainees. Quality teachers can be developed through skilled and competent Teacher Education professionals who have passion for profession. There should be no compromise with the standards and norms.

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POOR INTEGRATION OF SKILLS-The term skill has become a misnomer, particularly, in education. All the skills, such as, life skills, techno-pedagogic skills, techno-savvy skills, info-savvy skills, emotional skills, human development skills, spiritual skills need to be integrated in teacher education. The study conducted by Helaiya (2009) verywell presents how the life skills can be developed in the pre-service teachers and integrated in the teacher education programmes. The study insists that all the life skills need to be integrated in the teacher education programmes. There should be simultaneous focus on creative thinking and critical thinking, as well as, self-management and social management. The present century teachers ought to be highly skilled in management of stress and emotions. The study conducted by Madhavi (2009) has tried to scale the techno pedagogic skills amongst the M.Ed. students. The study reveals that living competencies and techno-pedagogic competencies have not been found to be the significant predictors of teacher education proficiency in India. ALIENATED & INCOMPATIBLE MODES OF EDUCATION- There is little parity amongst various modes of education, such as, distance mode, e-mode, and face to face mode. Distance mode is diluted, e-mode is in infancy, whereas, the face to face mode is stagnant. There is no network amongst the various modes of teacher education. These are functioning more or less in isolation. L ITTLE CONTRIBUTION TO HIGHER EDUCATION- Teacher Education has not been in a position to come out of school education. It has made very little contribution to higher education. Educationists have been over obsessed with school education intensively for complexity, enormity, and the large number of the schools and students, but this is at the cost of neglecting higher education. DOMAIN PEDAGOGY MISMATCHES- There are mismatches between the subject and pedagogy. There are mismatches amongst the profiles of the learners and their education. Every subject has its own structure and functions. Each subject has its own ethos and discipline. Every Education level has its own tenderness. Inspite of the presence of all the global and regional attempts we have not been in a position to even sustain the identity of elementary education. IDENTITY CRISIS- Every teacher education institution ought to have valid identity. Valid identity means valid institutional land & plant, valid settings, valid inputs, valid processes and valid products. Each & every teacher & teacher educator ought to have a unique identification number. The self- disclosure exercise being done by the teacher education institutions helps in realizing identity. The National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education: Towards Preparing Professional and Humane Teacher (Dec. 2009) is with high hopes. Also, Teacher Education: Reflections Towards Policy Formulation (2009) is quite promising. Teacher Education will have to revive and build its identity. RARE INNOVATIONS- Teacher Education is a discipline which educates the progressive generations on what has gone by, where we are, where we want to go, and what we like to create, observing healthy, meaningful and long life. Innovations in Teacher Education are very rare. It may be attributed to various factors. Novel ideas do not incubate because of the adverse external conditions. There are wide gaps between the visionaries and actors. So, very often the innovations have short life and die down in the institutions, where these originate.

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STAKE HOLDERS NON â&#x20AC;&#x201C;ALIGNMENT- Different parties to education champion their cause by becoming the so-called stakeholders without having regard to the needs, urges and aspirations of other stakeholders. Consequently, the system is unduly stressed, instead of making it resilient enough to deliver man-making education. State indifference and displeasure, judicial concern and activism, Privatization and commercialization, public hope and failure, disregard and disrespect for education are fully evident. INADEQUATE TECHNOLOGY INFUSION- Teacher education programmes are largely traditional. Pace of modernization is very slow. We have not yet been in a position to infuse the technological innovations for transacting the education. There is more of knowledge deepening than knowledge construction. A sizable number of studies on effectiveness of CAI developed through various computer languages employing either pre-experimental design or quasi experimental design reveal significant mean score gain from pre-test to post-test. Studies on the effectiveness of CAI reveal favourable reactions of students and teachers towards the CAI. ( Prabhakr, 1989; Himani, 1990, Mahapatra, 1991, and Adhikari, 1992, DAVV, Indore; Khiwadkar, 1999, Zyoud, 1999, Yadav, 2000, Goel, Khirwadkar, Tomar, Das & Joshi, 2000, Macwana, 2004, Sharma, 2005, Barot, 2005, Pradesi, 2005, and Rathod, 2005, MSU; Suwanna, 2004, SGU; Upadhyaya, 1999, MJP Rohilkhand University, Bareily; Sanjana, 2001, MDU and Pandian, 2004, DU). These studies reveal that there should be added focus on production variables, pedagogic principles and spatial and temporal contiguity of various message forms (Patel, 2001,MSU; Chaudhari, 2005, MSU). Computer as a medium has been found to have the potency of addressing the heterogeneity in terms of variables, namely, IQ, Interest, Motivation, Language level (Zyoud, 1999, MSU). Attempts have been made for designing, developing and implementing computer based Learning Resources Management System (LRMS). L ITTLE CHOICE BASE- Options are not substitutes for choice based education. The issues involved relate to the systemic correction, as well as, developing the right attitudes to make it a success. Though we have introduced optional areas in teacher education, but the choice is very limited. There is a need to employ choice based credit system in teacher education, which can be realized through e-platforms, and amalgamation of various modes, such as, fact to face, distance and electronic. Choice base demands plenty of resources. POOR RESEARCH SCENARIO- Research in education is replicate and repetitive devoid of freshness, either of problem or of approach or of methodology. The national agenda for research needs to be developed in alignment with the developmental objectives. A prospective plan for research and innovations should be framed with regional and national developmental priorities. The research methodology must be compatible with the local problems. There is a need to be innovative. There are mismatches between research trends and problems. Regulatory mechanism to tone up the research quality needs to be evolved. There is a need to evolve research quality indicators. There is a need to evolve social sciences compatible indigenous research methodology. Philosophical & historical studies are very rare. There is more of quantitative research than qualitative. There is more of descriptive and evaluative research than suggestive. There is more of borrowed methodology than indigenous. Taxonomy of research needs to be evolved. There is lack of continuity, cumulativeness and synthesis in most of the studies. Most of the studies are descriptive rather than preventive and ameliorative. Culture for incubation of ideas is grossly lacking, what to talk of inculcation. Statistics and psychometrics are superimposing reality. There is a mixed scenario of research in education. Some of the observations are as follows: Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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A large number of surveys have been conducted in education. But, the principles of objectivity, transparency, equivalence and generality have not been adequately observed.

In experimental research, largely the scholars move from induction to abduction to thesis to analogy to facts to theories. But inconsistent scattered researches lead us nowhere. Social laboratory is a myth and figment of imagination. It has become essential to sustain social life that the social scientists evolve their own methods.

In case study research diagnosis of a case is as important as prognosis of its disposition. A large majority of us have become excellent in describing the problems and cases, but prognosis is lacking. Here the presage, process and product variables, all, need to be treated very carefully.

Naturalistic enquiry which phenomenology demands needs to be conducted in an open, naturalistic, parametric setting. Because more and more are the controls in a social science laboratory, lesser and lesser is the generalization.

Qualitative research cannot be conducted through a-priori samples only. Sampling goes on throughout research, through various sampling techniques, such as, typical case sampling, intensity sampling, critical case sampling, sensitive case sampling, convenience sampling, primary selection and secondary selection. Qualitative Research cannot be conducted through static tools and techniques, because very often the researcher employing qualitative research methodology does not have a sound theoretical base related to the reality. Theory in fact is the product of enquiry. Qualitative research is affected by a wonderful interaction of subject and object. The object needs to be perceived as objectively and comprehensively as feasible.

One of the basic tenets of qualitative research is awareness of one's own biases. There is a need to address diversity issues, such as, gender, race, religion, ability, sexual orientation, and socio-economic status. The pursuit of knowledge should be conducted with sincerity and care.

VISION & MISSION MISMATCH- University of teacher education has come up at Chennai. IITE is being established in Gujarat. Many integrated teacher education programmes are proposed. Private teacher education universities are also coming up. But, there are evident mismatches amongst vision, establishment, and mission. NON -SCIENTIFIC MANPOWER PLANNING- The 21st Century is highly complex. The return on investment, be it public sector or corporate is measured in terms of material returns than in terms of human development. Human beings are most neglected. There is more of focus on GNP than on HDI. In this ICT and digital age machines are most respected, whereas, men are most neglected. What to talk of the knowledge poor, even in the knowledge rich societies, gross injustice is rampant. There are demand and supply imbalances in teacher education. Appreciable attempts have been made for manpower planning. But, the manpower planning still needs to be done more scientifically. It is expected that the various States governments play an active role in manpower planning. ILLUSIVE LABORATORIES- The various laboratories of teacher education institutions, namely, Science Lab, Psychology Lab, Guidance & Counselling Lab, Educational Technology Lab, Computer Lab, and Language Lab are either not there or are mostly in very Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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bad states. The field reality is still worse. All the laboratories ought to be fully functional and innovative to address the problems. OVER ACTIVISM OF DISTANCE /OPEN UNIVERSITIES- Some of the distance and open universities have become over activists in the context of teacher education. These have a notion that they can open their teacher education extension centres anywhere. To give birth to infinite is their right, but who will rear their babies. Such distance and open universities have resulted into the dilution of teacher education. INVALID RECOGNITION & ACCREDITATION- There are questions on recognition of teacher education institutions. There are questions on inputs & processes of teacher education. There are questions even on Accreditation of teacher education institutions. Escola Normal of Goa was much better established during Portuguese period than the most recent modern teacher education institutions in India. Nalanda was having a much better profile and grade than the highest graded modern universities. NO TEACHER EDUCATION POLICY- There is no Teacher education policy in India. It is unfortunate that education is not even considered as an entity.Irrespective of geographical and cultural context, education is needed for all and therefore, it should be a national priority instead of leaving the subject in the domain of States. For this education should be shifted to the central list of the constitution from the concurrent list. In order to make it locally relevant, the financial and administrative arrangement be jointly shared, both, by the Centre and States. This would hopefully loose the chains of political interference in the university system. Every fault of Teacher Education is attributed to the National Council of Teacher Education. CONCLUSION The courses of studies both in theory and practice should be reorganised. A teacher education department should therefore; conduct special innovative programmes i.e. seminars, combining of seminar, discussions with lectures, team teaching and panel discussion. The admission procedures of B.Ed. should be completely systematised. There should be a planning unit in each state education department. The function of this unit should be to regulate the demand and supply of teachers at various levels of schools. The practising schools have to be taken into confidence. For this the members of the staff of teachers colleges should be closely associated with the schools. Correspondence courses in teacher education should be provided, with a strict and high screen for admissions and an accurate manner of assessment. REFERENCES Analysis and Policy in South Asia. “World Development, Vol. 22, no. 10, (1994):pp. 145578. Print.  Burbules, Nicholas C, Carlos Alberto Torres. Globalization and Education: Critical perspectives, UK: Routledge Publishers, (2009).  Lauder, Hugh, ed. Education, Globalization and Social Change, UK: Oxford University Press, (2006):pp.1-70. Print.  Nanda, Bisnupoda, (2015) Inclusion in Education, published by classiquebooks, ISBN 97881-8716-74-0  Rege, Sharmila (edited), Themes in Indian Sociology (volume 1), (2003).

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Conservation of Estuaries for Sustainable Development: A Case Study of Aghanashini River Estuary in Karnataka - Using Remote Sensing and GIS Data Dr. S. S. Hangaragi Associate Professor, Dept. of Geography, S. R. N. Arts and M. B. S. Commerce College, BAGALKOT - 587 101, Karnataka State, India, E-mail: sshangaragi@gmail.com ABSTRACT Amongst coastal ecosystems, estuaries need particular attention as interfaces between fresh and marine waters and the atmosphere. They are defined as zones of transition, where emerges a water court which discharges into the sea and are closely connected to the ecosystems adjacent to them. At present urgent need to assess the vulnerability level of coastal estuaries towards to control the landuse and landscape change, is an important step for enhancing the understanding and decision-making to reduce such vulnerability. The main objectives of this paper are: to assess the level of vulnerability in the Aghanashini river estuary and to suggest the conservation measures for sustainable development. This paper presents an analytical framework and associated indicator system to assess vulnerability level towards to understand the landuse and landscape change in coastal estuary. Aghanashini Estuary is an important Biological Heritage Site in Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka. This river originates in the Western Ghats and flows westward towards the Arabian Sea, major part of its course flowing through forested gorges and valleys. Having no dams and no notable industrial establishments or no major townships along its banks, it may be considered as one of the most pristine ones along the west coast. The river confluence to the Arabian Sea is located near the Aghanashini village of Kumta taluk of Uttar Kannada District. The tidal portion or estuary, towards the river mouth is a flat expanse of water dotted with small islands and narrow creeks. This portion, designated as the Aghanashini river estuary, is a highly productive and biologically rich waterscape/landscape of coastal Karnataka. Thus, it is imperative to formulate appropriate measures to conserve the whole estuary landscape and its resources for sustainable development.

Key Words: Landscape.

Estuary, Vulnerability, Conservation, Sustainable Development,

Introduction An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments. They are subject both to marine influences such as tides, waves and the influx of saline water and to riverine influences such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflows of both sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world. Most existing estuaries formed during the Holocene epoch with the flooding of rivereroded or glacially scoured valleys when the sea level began to rise about 10,000â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 12,000 years ago. Estuaries are typically classified according to their geomorphological features or to water-circulation patterns. They can have many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons, inlets or sounds, although some of these water bodies do not strictly meet the above definition of an estuary and may be fully saline. The banks of many estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas of the world, with about 40 percent of the world's population living along estuaries and the Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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coast. As a result, many estuaries suffer degradation by many factors, including sedimentation from soil erosion from deforestation, overgrazing and other poor farming practices; overfishing; drainage and filling of wetlands; eutrophication due to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes; pollutants including heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, radio-nuclides and hydrocarbons from sewage inputs and damming for flood control or water diversion. An estuary is a connecting zone between river and sea. These dynamic interface zones are very special in their characteristics .The physical ecological as well as economical phenomenon of the estuary is very interesting to study. To understand the characteristics of any estuary total geomorphological, physical, chemical properties are needs to study. An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries are regions of the coastal ocean where salinity variations in space are so large that they determine the mean circulation. Most estuaries are found at river mouths; they are thus long and narrow, resembling a channel. Compared to the flow in the direction of the estuary axis, cross-channel motion is very restricted and the estuarine circulation is well described by a two-dimensional current structure. A classical definition of estuaries used by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is “A semi-enclosed coastal body of water having free connection to the open sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water deriving from land drainage”. Here, researcher has been reviewed some of important literature concerned to Indian river mouth coastal estuaries. They are: Satellite imagery has immensely helped mapping of coastal ecosystems and provided estimates of extent and alteration in land cover in coastal ecosystem. A baseline information on coastal habitat (critical/vital) and associated shore land features along the entire Indian coast on 1:250,000/1:50,000 scale has been carried out through visual interpretation of multi-spectral IRS LISS II and LISS III and LANDSAT TM data for macro-level planning for the first time (Nayak et al. 1991, Jagtap et al. 2001, Nayak, 2002). Green (1994-95) proposed the idea of GIS based estuary information system in the UK as a means by which it would be possible to collect, store analysis and display spatial data and information to aid estuary and coastal zone management system. Shaikh et al., (1989) utilized Land-Sat TM data for the coastal geomorphic mapping around the Gulf of Khambhat. Various landforms like shoreline, estuaries, mudflats, mangroves, relict alluvium, cliffs, dunes, flood plains, etc were delineated. The estuaries were divided into different groups depending on amount of freshwater discharge and nature of tidal currents. Based on tidal effect the mudflats were classified into 3 classes, which were further classified based on their composition. It was concluded that the Land-Sat TM data is better than Land-Sat MSS and is very useful in the study of coastal landforms. Y Sadhuram, V V Sarma, T V Ramana Murthy and B Prabhakara Rao (2004) worked on Seasonal variability of physicochemical characteristics of the Haldia channel of Hooghly estuary, India. Dr. N. Rajendran,Ms. Seena Raghunathan,Dr. S. Baskara Sanjeevi (2002) in the report “Estuaries of India State of art report ” worked on almost all the estuaries of India, they studied geomorphological, physical features of the estuaries. Dr. S. K. Mukhopadhyay in his study on “The Hooghly Estuarine System, NE Coast of Bay of Bengal, India” discussed all the physical chemical parameters and biogeochemical cycles of Hooghly estuary.

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Study Area Aghanashini River in central Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka originates in the Western Ghats and flows westward towards the Arabian Sea, major part of its course through forested gorges and valleys. Having no dams and no notable industrial establishments or major townships along its banks the river may be considered one of the most pristine ones along the west coast. The River meets the sea in the Aghanashini village of Kumta taluk. The tidal portion, or estuary, towards the river mouth is a flat expanse of water dotted with small islands and narrow creeks. This portion, designated as the Aghanashini estuary, is a highly productive and biologically rich waterscape of coastal Karnataka. The high productivity of the estuary is due to the river water carries large quantity of organic materials from the forests in the catchment area of the Western Ghats and deposits the same in the estuary. The debris becomes important base for food chains operating in the estuary. The rich mangrove vegetation of the estuary plays significant role in nutrient supply for the diverse faunal community and provide shelter for birds and act as nurseries for many species of fishes and prawns. The rich bird community (over 120 species) associated with the estuary contributes to the nutrient cycling through their potash and nitrogen rich castings. The constant churning and circulation of waters due to flow of fresh water from one side and the tidal influx from the Arabian Sea oxygenates the water and circulates the nutrients.

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Objectives The following two specific objectives have been proposed to study the sustainable development of estuary. ď&#x201A;ˇ To study the characteristics of the Aghanashini river estuary based on Geomorphology, Hydrodynamics and Physico-chemical parameters. ď&#x201A;ˇ To study the dynamics of morphological characteristics of the estuary and it is very essentially to study the food production from estuarine water, because it keep changing all over the years.

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Data Base To conserve and manage estuarine resources, it is important to have inventory of estuary and their catchments. The ability to store and analyze the data is essential. Digital maps are very powerful tools to achieve this. Maps relating the feature to any given geographical location have a strong visual impact. Maps are thus essential for monitoring and quantifying change over time scale, assist in decision making. The technique used in the preparation of map started with ground survey. The Survey of India (SOI) topographic maps are the earliest true maps of India showing various landuse / land cover classes including estuarine coastal area. Recent years have seen advances in mapping technique to prepare maps with much more information. Of particular importance is the remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) technique. Remote sensing is now recognized as an essential tool for viewing, analyzing, characterizing and making decisions about land, water and atmospheric components. The Aghanashini River is covered by 4 Survey of India (SOI) Topographical maps on 1:50,000 scale that form the spatial frame work for mapping. Remote Sensing Data of IRS P6 LISS III data is used to prepare the Aghanashini river estuary map. The IRS P6 LISS III provides data in 4 spectral bands; green, red, Near Infra Red (NIR) and Short wave Infra Red (SWIR), with 23 .5 meter spatial resolution and 24 day repeat cycle. The spatial resolution is suitable for 1:50,000 scale mapping. The Aghanashini river estuary is covered in 4 IRS LISS III scene. Onetime data is acquired to study the hydrological variability of the estuary and its surrounding region respectively. Ground Truth Data: Remote sensing techniques require certain amount of field observation called “ground truth” in order to deduce meaningful information. Such work involves visiting a number of test sites, usually taking the satellite data. The location of the features is recorded using the GPS. The standard proforma as per the NWIA manual was used to record the field data. Field photographs are also taken to record the water quality (qualitative), status of aquatic vegetation and water spread. All field data collection work has been done during October and November 2014. Methodology The methodology to create the base level map of estuary is adhered to NWIA technical guidelines and procedure manual (Garg and Patel, 2007). The work was carried out using Arc/Info and Arc-GIS software’s. Mapping of Estuary: The delineation of estuarine area through image analysis forms the foundation for deriving all estuarine classes and results. Consequently, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the quality of the image Interpretation. In the present study, the mapping of estuary was done by using following digital classification and on-screen visual interpretation. Estuary was identified based on vegetation, visible hydrology and geography. There are various methods for extraction of water information from remote sensing imagery, which according to the number of bands used, are generally divided into single-band and multi -band methods. Single -band method usually involves choosing a band from multi -spectral image to distinguish water from land by subjective threshold values. It may lead to over or under estimation of open water area. Multi-band method takes advantage of reflective differences of each band. In this paper, five indices i.e. NDWI, MNDWI, NDVI, NDPI and NDTI used to known the various estuarine characteristics were used. These indices were generated using standard image processing software, stacked as layers. Various Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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combinations of the indices/spectral bands estuary.

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were used to identify the features of

Analysis of Characteristics of Aghanashini River Estuary The physical features of circle shaped estuary of Aghanashini river, the breadth and cross-sectional area at the mouth is 2.5 kms and 1,56,250 sq. meters and it decreases to 1.6 kms and 36,799 sq. meter at the head end. The mixing zone of the estuary extends up to head end area about 8 kms upstream. This estuary receives 4 small rivers or nalhas. This estuary is very shallow, depth is only 6 meter on the average and nowhere deeper than 10 meters. Geomorphologically, it can be classified as coastal plain estuary. The important morphological types are, tidal island, tidal bars, beaches, mudflats, sand flats, coastal dunes, creeks, inlets and mangrove swamp. This delta is ornamented with large number of tidal bars and tidal islands biosphere positioned at the mouth of the estuary. Hydrography of Aghanashini River Estuary Hydrography is the science which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of bodies of water and their littoral land areas. Special emphasis is usually placed on the elements that affect safe navigation and the publication of such information in a suitable form for use in navigation. Hydrographic survey in its strictest sense is the process of gathering information about navigable waters for the purposes of safe navigation of vessels. It strictly applies to survey of any navigable waters, including lakes and rivers, but it is most commonly applied to marine navigation. The term may be more broadly used for a wide variety of data gathering exercises for the purpose of describing the seafloor for a variety of purposes. The largest hydrographic community globally is involved in the description of offshore oilfields from their initial design phase through to regular inspections of the infrastructure of a mature sub sea oil infrastructure. This may be commonly referred to as Offshore Survey. The hydrological data is collected from National Navigation Authority of India based on several soundings per square foot. Those data is used to depict the hydrogaphic characteristics of Aghanashini river estuary. The hydrographic surveyor contributes to the measurement of factors of tidal height, accuracy of declared depth and frequency of hydrographic surveys and he may contribute to the measurement of vessels squat and roll, pitch and heave movement. The current wave velocity of the flow and its direction, magnitude, etc are shown in the Fig: No: 5.

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Bathymetry of Estuary To understand the total geo-environmental characteristics of an estuary it is very essential to understand the sub-water bathymetry i.e. the bottom profile of the estuary. The bathymetry of the Aghanashini river estuary is very interesting and important in the sense of shipping. As the estuary is very dynamic and the bathymetry is very complicated .To maintain the two main boats passage to Karwar dock and Mangalore dock system. But it needs complex detail and regular study of bathymetry is necessary. To study the sub water features i.e. bathymetry of the estuary detailed hydrographic survey has been carried out. The sounding data derived from the hydrographic charts has been incorporated in GIS environment .In GIS analysis Bathymetry, the nature of relief, characteristics of slope and other aspect of the estuary has also been studied (see Fig No: 6).

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Richness in Biodiversity Estuaries are ranked among the highest productive ecosystems of the earth. One of the most notable economic and subsistence output of the Aghanashini estuary is the bivalves (Phylum / Mollusca). The meat of these invertebrates is used as a protein rich food by thousands people along the coastal areas of Karnataka and Goa. Total annual production: is estimated at 22,006 tons, valued at Rs.57.8 million per annum. Most of the bivalves harvested belong to Paphia malabarica, although six other edible species are also gathered in lesser quantities. Bulk of the bivalve harvest from mudflats bordering the village by name Aghanashini, close to the mouth of the river (bearing the same name). Collectively these bivalve harvesting areas measure about 229 hectares. It is significant to note that so much of food production is activated without any investment or supply of feeds by humans. An estimated the value of food production in Aghanashini estuary as Rs.11,41,600/hectares/year. This value is the aggregate of all goods and services such as shrimps, fish, crabs, salt, mangroves, in addition to services such as fish spawning grounds, nutrient cycling, hydrology, flood control, soil protection, sink for carbon etc. It is notable that the Aghanashini Estuary Authority has provided strong baseline to produce large quantity of bivalve and not the other goods and services. The bivalve harvesting is the most important aspect of small scale informal fisheries of Kumta coast, an activity traditionally carried out by even persons from non-fishing communities, for family food security and for sale. Bivalve collection provided direct employment for 2,347 people according to the record of State Employment Bureau. Of the harvesters 1,738 collectors were men and 609 were women. The collectors belonged to 19 estuarine villages and congregate in mudflats closer to Aghanashini village during the low tide time for harvesting. The bivalve-linked activities also include minor processing at the site, transportation, collection and sale of empty shells and drying of bivalve meat in small quantities for storage and future use. The calcium rich bivalve shells are used for lime making. The bivalve shell lime is of superior quality for white washing, as fertilizer, prawn feed, poultry feed, production of high grade cement, etc. Ecosystem Richness and Productivity Bivalves from the Aghanashini estuary provide excellent protein and mineral rich food for an estimated 1,98,000 peoples of coast area.. The Indian edible bivalves have protein (5-14%), fats (0.5-3%), calcium (0.04-1.84%) and phosphorus (0.1-0.2%) and iron (1-29 mg/100 g of fresh weight). The abundant annual production of edible bivalves reflects the rich biodiversity of the estuary in general, which also has around 150 species of fishes, 120 species of birds, 13 species of mangroves, numerous mangrove associates and many more species of lower plants. Organic debris from the bio-diverse community of the estuary itself as well as that brought into the estuary from the Western Ghats forests collectively contributes towards the high production of bivalves. The major bivalve gathering area of 229 hectares, it is a part of Biological Heritage Site. The local population has strong cultural bonds with the river, which they treat as Goddess. A long history of human association with the river can be traced, as integral part of peopleâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s culture and livelihood activities such as fishing, fish and prawn culturing, mangrove planting and utilization, transportation, estuarine rice farming, salt making etc. The edible bivalve rich mudflats of Aghanashini may be considered as Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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unique, ecologically fragile areas, as their productivity is due to their location towards the river mouth, at appropriate flooding depth during high tides, suitable salinity ranges, and accumulation of a huge quantity organic debris. Several aquatic and terrestrial bird species, including migrant species use the bivalves and other organisms of nutrient rich bivalve beds as their food. Over Fishing The Aghanashini estuary has been overfished. Arabian sea edible bivalves, Moluska and bluefin tuna are not endangered, but their range has been drastically reduced. Arabian Counties provides one of the largest markets for edible bivalves, moluska and bluefin tuna and the fish used to swim in the estuary of Aghanashini. Bluefin tuna are large, predatory fish. They require an expansive habitat and many kilograms of food every day. As coastal population grew and technology made it easier to catch more fish with less time and money, Karnataka Bayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bluefin tuna population shrank. Today, there is not a blue-fin tuna population in Aghanashini estuary. However, Indian scientists have established a successful tuna fish farming technique. The huge production of edible bivalves in the mudflats adjoining Aghanashini river mouth, although some kilometers away from the proposed mangrove heritage site, owe their productivity to the rich input of detritus from mangroves in addition to the organic matter input brought into the estuary from the Western Ghats. The site recommended for consideration as Location- II of BHS is not covered under Protected Area network under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 as amended. Farm-raised tuna does not have a direct environmental impact on the estuary. Karnataka government and environmental groups struggle to promote sustainable development in estuaries. Sustainable development aims to preserve the environment while satisfying people's economic standard of living. The site recommended for consideration as BHS is not covered under Protected Area network under the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 as amended. No village community has exclusive jurisdiction over the BHS area, although bivalve gatherers assemble here from 19 estuarine villages. Bivalve gathering, just like fisheries, has been a subsistence and economic activity from pre-historical times. Unlike fisheries the bivalve gathering is not an activity that needs high skills. It belongs to the sector of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;informal fisheriesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The bivalve production area and activity of gathering and utilization may be considered a common heritage of the people of Aghanashini estuary. As such the bivalve collection activity is not regulated by any norms made by local communities. It is an unregulated, open to all economic activity engaged by people, irrespective of caste and community. The activity was carried out traditionally on sustainable basis, more to cater local needs. Over the last few years large scale transportation of bivalves especially to Goa market has resulted in local famine and raises question of sustainability of the resource. For generations together the edible bivalve production areas adjoining Aghanashini village were used sustainably by the village communities as production has been abundant. However in the recent years the demand has shot up from outside markets, especially from Goa, causing unprecedented overharvesting. As many village communities are traditionally associated with bivalve gathering in the same production areas it is beyond the jurisdiction of any single gram Panchayat or the local BMC to regulate harvests within sustainable limits. This situation could spell doom to the sustainability of the resource within few years. Further, the estuary is likely to be Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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affected by various developmental interventions in the absence of any biodiversity centered state sponsored governance. Physio-Chemical Variation The most important variable is that, the characteristics of estuarine water are the concentration of dissolved oxygen, salinity and sediment load. There is extreme spatial variability in salinity, with a range of near zero at the tidal limit of tributary rivers to 3.4 percent at the estuary mouth. At any one point the salinity will vary considerably over time and seasons, making it a harsh environment for organisms. Sediment often settles in intertidal mudflats which are extremely difficult to colonize. No points of attachment exist for algae, so vegetation based habitat is not established. Sediment can also clog feeding and respiratory structures of species and special adaptations exist within mudflat species to cope with this problem. Lastly, dissolved oxygen variation can cause problems for life forms. Nutrient rich sediment from man-made sources can promote primary production life cycles, perhaps leading to eventual decay removing the dissolved oxygen from the water, thus hypoxic or anoxic zones can develop. Implications for Marine Life Estuaries provide habitats for a large number of organisms and support to very high productivity. Estuaries provide habitats for many fish nurseries, such as salmon and sea trout. Also, migratory bird populations, such as the black-tailed godwit, make essential use of estuaries. Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in salinity and sedimentation. Many species of fish and invertebrates have various methods to control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and are termed as osmocon-formers and osmo-regulators. Many animals also burrow to avoid predation and to live in the more stable sedimental environment. However, large numbers of bacteria are found within the sediment which have a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be further exacerbated by limited water flux. Phytoplankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with the water bodies and can be flushed in and out with the tides. Their productivity is largely dependent upon the turbidity of the water. The main phytoplanktonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which are abundant in the sediment. It is important to remember that a primary source of food for many organisms on estuaries, including bacteria, is detritus from the settlement of the sedimentation. Estuary Ecosystems Many plant and animal species thrive in estuaries. The calm waters provide a safe area for small fish, shellfish, migrating birds and shore animals. The water is rich in nutrients such as plankton and bacteria. Decomposing plant matter, called detritus, provides food for many species. The estuarine crocodile most apex predators, estuarine crocodiles eat almost anything. This means the estuary must support a wide variety of food webs. Estuarine crocodiles do not usually consume producers sea grasses, seaweeds, mushrooms, and plankton in the estuary. However, they do prey on consumers in the second trophic level, which rely on these plants and other photosynthetic organisms for food like insects, mollusks, birds and fruit bats. Estuarine crocodiles also prey on consumers at the third trophic level, such as boars and snakes (rarely by people). Estuarine crocodiles are ideally adapted to the brackish water of river estuaries. They can survive equally well in freshwater and saltwater ecosystems. During the rainy Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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CRSJ, Volume 2, Issue 2, March, 2016

ISSN 2454 - 8987

season, estuarine crocodiles live in freshwater rivers and streams. They feed on fish such as barramundi, and terrestrial species such as kangaroos and monkeys. During the dry season, estuarine crocodiles swim to river mouths and even out to sea. Fish remain the main component of their diet. Some estuarine crocodiles have even been known to attack and consume sharks. Estuarine crocodiles have also adapted to seasonally vanishing estuaries. The reptiles can go months without eating. Estuarine crocodiles can simply not eat when the estuary shrinks and food becomes scarce. Human Impact In ecosystems point of view, estuaries are under threat from human activities such as pollution and overfishing. They are also threatened by sewage, coastal settlement, land clearance and much more. Estuaries are affected by events far upstream and concentrate materials such as pollutants and sediments. Land run-off and industrial, agricultural and domestic waste enter rivers and are discharged into estuaries. Contaminants can be introduced which do not disintegrate rapidly in the marine environment, such as plastics, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and heavy metals. Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. Estuaries tend to be naturally atrophic because land runoff discharges nutrients into estuaries. With human activities, land run-off also now includes the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. Excess oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of dead zones. This can result in reductions in water quality, fish and other animal populations. Overfishing also occurs. Estuaries and People Estuaries are excellent sites for community living. They provide freshwater for drinking and hygiene. Access to both rivers and oceans helps the development of trade and communication. In fact, the earliest civilizations in the world developed around estuaries. The estuary's wetlands and flood plains provided a rich source of wild game and allowed for the development of irrigation and agriculture. Pollution In recent times Pollution accumulates in the Aghanashini river estuary. The Aghanashini river meet the Arabian Sea, is one of the most-trafficked and mostpolluted estuaries in Karnataka. Pollution of the estuary from oil spills from thousands of fishing boats, discharge of pollutants from paper mills, aluminum industries and ceramics; retting of coconut husk, disposal of huge quantities of untreated sewage from settlement which have located along the coast and direct disposal of human excreta from hanging latrines and natural habitat contribute to serious degradation including reclamation of the estuary and are the major concerns for the survival of the estuary. Debris in the estuary, including fuel, garbage, sewage and ballast, remained unregulated. Runoff from agriculture and industry in coastal Karnataka particularly in Bhatkal taluk also contributed a toxic estuarine environment. Industrial waste and pesticides travel downstream and settle in the water and sediment of the estuary. Today, strict regulations and community activities are working to protect and restore the Aghanashini Estuary. The restoration of oyster beds is an important part of many projects. Oysters are a keystone species in the estuary, filter feeders that naturally help regulate toxins in the water. By the middle of the 20th century, however, the few remaining oysters were too toxic for human consumption. Today, several Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal

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environmental groups are establishing oyster beds to repopulate the region's native species and reduce pollution in the estuary. An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the ocean. In estuaries, the salty water of ocean mixes with a river freshwater, resulting in brackish water. Brackish water is somewhat salty, but not as salty as the ocean. However, deterioration in water quality has a devastating effect on tourism. Package tourism could include trips to coir making villages, inland and marine fishing centers which provide the tourists with glimpses of the crafts of estuary workers in action. This will not only give additional income to the inland fishers who earn a subsistence income from their present activity, but will also help to prolong the stay of tourists at Aghanashini. It may be necessary to ensure that this process does not affect the normal activities and social privacy of the local people. They need to be educated about the potential of tourism to generate income through work opportunities and the need to integrate tourism with their traditional activities. It is also suggested that hospitality management should include training on water conservation, energy efficiency devices, pollution control methods and waste management. Construction of hotel buildings could use local sustainable materials to make it environment friendly. Tourism industry could promote awareness of cultural and historical heritages among tourists, facilitate interaction with local residents and implement measures to prevent occurrence of criminal offences and harassment against tourists. Conclusion This estuary is one of the most important among the few salt marshes on the west coast of India. Its location positions it under the path of the Arabian Sea, where it serves as a stopover point. Many species of migratory and native species rely on the estuary as an essential breeding, feeding and nesting habitat. The estuary lies within the Karnataka coastal part of India. The present study uses bathymetry to represent vulnerability more precisely, an additional geologic process variable. CESS carried out a study with the objective of evolving a management plan for sustainable management of the estuary for ecotourism development. The shores of the lake are home to important species of rare birds and animals. Any decisions concerning the resources of the Aghanashini estuary and its sustainable management would affect a million people living on its shores and the large species of rare birds and animals which provide equally important biodiversity to the environs. The Plan envisages: Identifying and phasing out of the sources of pollution. Better sanitation, control of industrial growth and disposal of settlements waste to ensure maintainable level of water quality in the estuary. Address the declining stock of fish production in the estuary through concerted efforts in a sustainable manner and with community participation. Encourage the product diversification of coir to ensure better economic returns to people with the coordination of self-help groups. Improved shore protection through mangrove afforestation for ecosystem development on the banks of the estuary The Aghanashini river estuary is a highly productive and biologically rich waterscape/landscape of coastal Karnataka. The Aghanashini river estuary is ranked first in the productive ecosystems among the all coastal estuaries of Karnataka state and its environs formed the lifeline of the people and constitute a major cultural and historical heritage of the west coast of India. The constant churning and circulation of waters due to flow of fresh water from one side and the tidal influx from the Arabian Sea oxygenates the water and circulates nutrients. Thus, it is imperative to formulate appropriate measures to conserve the whole estuary landscape and its resources for sustainable development. Contemporary Research Spectrum Journal | 270

CRSJ, Volume 2, Issue 2, March, 2016

ISSN 2454 - 8987

References  Boominathan, M., Chandran, MDS and Ramachandra, T.V (2008) Economic Valuation of Bivalves in the Aghanashini Estuary, West Coast, Karnataka, ENVIS Technical Report, No: 3, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.  Census Data (2001), Census Department, Government of India.  Census, (1991) District Census Handbook, Census Department, Government of India.  Centre for Earth Science Studies, (1991) Panchayat Level Resource Mapping: An Approach Paper, A Model for Micro Level Resource Survey with People’s Participation, Thiruvananthapuram.  Constanza, R. et al. (1997) The Valuation of World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital, Nature Journal, Vol: 387, pp. 253-260.  CSIR (1962) The Wealth of India: Raw Materials, Journal of National Institute of Science, CSIR Communication and Information Resources, New Delhi, Vol: VI, pp.98 -109.  District Handbook (1998), District Handbook of Kollam District, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Government of Kerala.  Government of Karnataka (2014) Economic Review, State Planning Board, Karnataka.  Kerry Black (2001) Ashtamudi Management Plan – Tourism concept. P.22.  Kerry Black, and Baba, M. (2001) Developing a Management Plan for Ashtamudi Estuary, Kollam, India; p.546.  National Biodiversity Authority (2009) Guidelines for Selection and Management of Biodiversity Heritage Web Sites (http://nbaindia.org/wb_day.htm).  Terry Machado, Kutty Ahmed Kully, K., Sasidharan C.K. et. al (2004) Master Plan for Thirurangadi Block, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Draft report, p.58.  World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

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